Chinese folk religion

==Core concepts of theology and cosmology==
{{See also|Chinese theology|Chinese philosophy}}
Fan and Chen summarise four spiritual, cosmological, and moral concepts:{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|pp=5-6}} ''[[Tian]]'' ({{lang-zh|天}}), Heaven, the [[Absolute (philosophy)|source]] of moral meaning; ''[[qi]]'' ({{lang-zh|氣}}), the breath or substance of which all things are made; the practice of ''[[Ancestor veneration in China|jingzu]]'' ({{lang-zh|敬祖}}), the veneration of ancestors; ''[[bao ying]]'' ({{lang-zh|報應}}), moral reciprocity.

===''Tian'', its ''li'' and ''qi''===
{{Main|Tian|Qi}}
[[File:Tian, god of the square of the north astral pole.svg|thumb|Tian or Di as the square of the [[circumpolar star|north astral pole]].<ref>Didier, 2009. Represented in vol. III, discussed throughout vols. I, II, and III.</ref><br />"Tian is ''dian'' {{lang-zh|顛}} ('top'), the highest and unexceeded. It derives from the characters ''yi'' {{lang-zh|一}}, 'one', and ''da'' {{lang-zh|大}}, 'big'."{{refn|group=note|The graphical [[etymology]] of ''Tian'' {{lang-zh|天}} as "Great One" (''Dà yī'' {{lang-zh|大一}}), and the phonetical etymology as ''diān'' {{lang-zh|顛}}, were first recorded by [[Xu Shen]].<ref>Didier, 2009. Vol. III, p. 1</ref> John C. Didier in ''In and Outside the Square'' (2009) for the ''[[Sino-Platonic Papers]]'' discusses different etymologies which trace the character ''Tian'' {{lang-zh|天}} to the astral square or its ellipted forms, ''dīng'' {{lang-zh|口}}, representing the [[circumpolar star|north celestial pole]] ([[pole star]] and [[Big Dipper]] revolving around it; historically a symbol of the [[Absolute (philosophy)|absolute source of the universal reality]] in many cultures), which is the archaic ([[Shang dynasty|Shang]]) form of ''dīng'' {{lang-zh|丁}} ("square").<ref name="Didier, 2009. Vol. III, pp. 3-6">Didier, 2009. Vol. III, pp. 3–6</ref> Gao Hongjin and other scholars trace the modern word ''Tian'' to the Shang pronunciation of {{lang-zh|口}} ''dīng'' (that is ''*teeŋ'').<ref name="Didier, 2009. Vol. III, pp. 3-6"/> This was also the origin of Shang's ''Dì'' {{lang-zh|帝}} ("Deity"), and later words meaning something "on high" or "top", including {{lang-zh|頂}} ''dǐng''.<ref name="Didier, 2009. Vol. III, pp. 3-6"/> The modern graph for ''Tian'' {{lang-zh|天}} would derive from a [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] version of the Shang archaic form of ''Dì'' {{lang-zh|帝}} (from Shang [[oracle bone script]]<ref>Didier, 2009. Vol. II, p. 100</ref> → [[File:Shang archaic form of Di.svg|20px]], which represents a fish entering the astral square); this Zhou version represents a being with a human-like body and a head-mind informed by the astral pole (→ [[File:Zhou archaic form of Tian.svg|20px]]).<ref name="Didier, 2009. Vol. III, pp. 3-6"/> Didier further links the Chinese astral square and ''Tian'' or ''Di'' characters to other well-known symbols of God or divinity as the northern pole in key ancient cultural centres: the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Harappan]] and [[Vedic period|Vedic]]–[[Aryan]] [[dharmachakra|spoked wheels]],<ref>Didier, 2009. Vol. III, p. 7</ref> [[cross]]es and [[swastika|hooked crosses]] (Chinese ''wàn'' {{lang-zh|卍/卐}}),<ref>Didier, 2009. Vol. III, p. 256</ref> and the [[Mesopotamia]]n ''[[Dingir]]'' [[File:Cuneiform sumer dingir.svg|20px]].<ref>Didier, 2009. Vol. III, p. 261</ref> Jixu Zhou (2005), also in the ''Sino-Platonic Papers'', connects the etymology of ''Dì'' {{lang-zh|帝}}, [[Old Chinese]] ''*Tees'', to the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] ''[[Deus]]'', [[God]].<ref>Zhou, 2005. ''passim''</ref>}}]]

Confucians, Taoists, and other schools of thought share basic concepts of ''Tian''. ''Tian'' is both the physical heavens, the home of the sun, moon, and stars, and also the home of the gods and ancestors. ''Tian'' by extension is source of moral meaning, as seen in the political principle, the [[Mandate of Heaven]], which holds that ''Tian'', responding to human virtue, grants the imperial family the right to rule and withdraws it when the dynasty declines in virtue.<ref>Adler, 2011. p. 4</ref> This creativity or virtue (''[[de (Chinese)|de]]'') in humans is the potentiality to transcend the given conditions and act wisely and morally.<ref name="Adler, 2011. p. 5">Adler, 2011. p. 5</ref> ''Tian'' is therefore both [[transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] and [[immanence|immanent]].<ref name="Adler, 2011. p. 5"/>

''Tian'' is defined in many ways, with many names, the most widely known being ''Tàidì'' {{lang-zh|太帝}} (the "Great Deity") and ''[[Shangdi|Shàngdì]]'' {{lang-zh|上帝}} (the "Primordial Deity").{{refn|group=note|name=names of Heaven|''Tian'', besides ''Taidi'' ("Great Deity") and ''[[Shangdi]]'' ("Highest Deity"), ''[[Jade Emperor|Yudi]]'' ("Jade Deity"), ''Shen'' {{lang-zh|神}} ("God"), and ''Taiyi'' ("Great Oneness") as identified as the ladle of the ''[[Big Dipper|Tiānmén]]'' {{lang-zh|天門}} ("Gate of Heaven", the Big Dipper),<ref>John Lagerwey, Marc Kalinowski. ''Early Chinese Religion I: Shang Through Han (1250 BC – 220 AD)''. Two volumes. Brill, 2008. {{ISBN|9004168354}}. p. 240</ref> is defined by many other names attested in the Chinese literary, philosophical and religious tradition:<ref>Lu, Gong. 2014. pp. 63–66</ref>
* ''Tiānshén'' {{lang-zh|天神}}, the "God of Heaven", interpreted in the ''[[Shuowen jiezi]]'' ({{lang-zh|說文解字}}) as "the being that gives birth to all things";
* ''Shénhuáng'' {{lang-zh|神皇}}, "God the King", attested in ''Taihong'' ("The Origin of Vital Breath");
* ''Tiāndì'' {{lang-zh|天帝}}, the "Deity of Heaven" or "Emperor of Heaven".
* A popular Chinese term is ''Lǎotiānyé'' ({{lang-zh|老天爺}}), "Old Heavenly Father".
* [[Tianzhu (Chinese name of God)|''Tiānzhǔ'']] {{lang|zh|天主}}—the "Lord of Heaven": In "The Document of Offering Sacrifices to Heaven and Earth on the Mountain Tai" (''Fengshan shu'') of the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' it is used as the title of the first God from whom all the other gods derive.{{sfnb|Lü|Gong|2014|p=65}}
* ''Tiānhuáng'' {{lang|zh|天皇}}—the "August Personage of Heaven": In the "Poem of Fathoming Profundity" (''Si'xuan fu''), transcribed in "The History of the Later Han Dynasty" (''Hou Han shu''), Zhang Heng ornately writes: «I ask the superintendent of the Heavenly Gate to open the door and let me visit the King of Heaven at the Jade Palace»;{{sfnb|Lü|Gong|2014|p=66}}
* [[Heavenly King|''Tiānwáng'']] {{lang|zh|天王}}—the "King of Heaven" or "Monarch of Heaven".
* ''Tiāngōng'' {{lang|zh|天公}}—the "Duke of Heaven" or "General of Heaven";{{sfnb|Lagerwey|Kalinowski|2008|p=981}}
* ''Tiānjūn'' {{lang|zh|天君}}—the "Prince of Heaven" or "Lord of Heaven";{{sfnb|Lagerwey|Kalinowski|2008|p=981}}
* ''Tiānzūn'' {{lang|zh|天尊}}—the "Heavenly Venerable", also a title for high gods in Taoist theologies;{{sfnb|Lü|Gong|2014|p=66}}

''Tian'' is both [[transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] and [[immanence|immanent]], manifesting in the three forms of dominance, destiny and nature. In the ''Wujing yiyi'' ({{lang-zh|五經異義}}, "Different Meanings in the [[Five Classics]]"), [[Xu Shen]] explains that the designation of Heaven is quintuple:<ref>Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 65</ref>
* ''Huáng Tiān'' {{lang-zh|皇天}} —"Yellow Heaven" or "Shining Heaven", when it is venerated as the lord of creation;
* ''Hào Tiān'' {{lang-zh|昊天}}—"Vast Heaven", with regard to the vastness of its vital breath (''qi'');
* ''Mín Tiān'' {{lang-zh|昊天}}—"Compassionate Heaven" for it hears and corresponds with justice to the all-under-heaven;
* ''Shàng Tiān'' {{lang-zh|上天}}—"Highest Heaven" or "First Heaven", for it is the primordial being supervising all-under-heaven;
* ''Cāng Tiān'' {{lang-zh|蒼天}}—"Deep-Green Heaven", for it being unfathomably deep.}} The concept of ''Shangdi'' is especially rooted in the tradition of the [[Shang dynasty]], which gave prominence to the worship of [[ancestor|ancestral gods]] and [[cultural hero]]es. The "Primordial Deity" or "Primordial Emperor" was considered to be embodied in the human realm as the lineage of imperial power.<ref name="Libbrecht 2007. p. 43">Libbrecht, 2007. p. 43</ref> ''Di'' ({{lang-zh|帝}}) is a term meaning "deity" or "emperor" ([[Latin language|Latin]]: ''[[imperium|imperator]]'', verb ''im-perare''; "making from within"), used either as a name of the primordial god or as a title of natural gods,<ref>Chang, 2000.</ref> describing a principle that exerts a fatherly dominance over what it produces.<ref name="Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 64">Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 64</ref> With the [[Zhou dynasty]], that preferred a religion focused on [[nature god|gods of nature]], ''Tian'' became a more abstract and impersonal idea of God.<ref name="Libbrecht 2007. p. 43"/> A popular representation is the [[Jade Emperor|Jade Deity]] ({{lang-zh|玉帝}} ''Yùdì'') or Jade Emperor ({{lang-zh|玉皇}} ''Yùhuáng''){{refn|group=note|name=king-emperor-shaman-axis|The characters ''yu'' {{linktext|lang=zh|玉}} (jade), ''huang'' {{linktext|lang=zh|皇}} (emperor, sovereign, august), ''wang'' {{linktext|lang=zh|王}} (king), as well as others pertaining to the same semantic field, have a common denominator in the concept of ''gong'' {{linktext|lang=zh|工}} (work, art, craft, artisan, bladed weapon, square and compass; [[gnomon]], "interpreter") and ''[[wu (shaman)|wu]]'' {{lang-zh|巫}} (shaman, medium)<ref>Mark Lewis. ''Writing and Authority in Early China''. SUNY Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0791441148}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8k4xn8CyHAQC&q=gong pp. 205–206] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164802/https://books.google.com/books?id=8k4xn8CyHAQC&q=gong |date=26 March 2023 }}.</ref> in its archaic form [[File:巫-bronze.svg|15px]], with the same meaning of ''wan'' {{linktext|lang=zh|卍}} (''[[swastika]]'', ten thousand things, all being, universe).<ref>Didier, 2009. Vol. III, p. 268</ref> The character ''dì'' {{lang-zh|帝}} is rendered as "deity" or "emperor" and describes a divine principle that exerts a fatherly dominance over what it produces.<ref name="Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 64"/> A king is a man or an entity who is able to merge himself with the ''[[axis mundi]]'', the [[Absolute (philosophy)|centre of the universe]], bringing its order into reality. The ancient kings or emperors of the Chinese civilisation were shamans or priests, that is to say mediators of the divine rule.<ref>Joseph Needham. ''[[Science and Civilisation in China]]''. Vol. III. p. 23</ref> The same Western terms "king" and "emperor" traditionally meant an entity capable to embody the divine rule: {{linktext|king}} etymologically means "gnomon", "generator", while {{linktext|emperor}} means "interpreter", "one who makes from within".}} originally formulated by Taoists.<ref name="Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 71">Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 71</ref> According to classical theology he manifests in [[Wufang Shangdi|five primary forms]] ({{lang-zh|五方上帝}} ''Wǔfāng Shàngdì'', "Five Forms of the Highest Deity").

The ''qi'' {{lang-zh|气}} is the breath or substance of which all things are made, including inanimate matter, the living beings, thought and gods.<ref>Adler, 2011. pp. 12–13</ref>{{sfnb|Teiser|1996|p=29}} It is the continuum energy—matter.<ref name="Adler, 2011. p. 21">Adler, 2011. p. 21</ref> [[Stephen F. Teiser]] (1996) translates it as "stuff" of "psychophysical stuff".{{sfnb|Teiser|1996|p=29}} [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] thinkers such as [[Zhu Xi]] developed the idea of ''[[li (Confucianism)|li]]'' {{lang-zh|理}}, the "reason", "order" of Heaven, that is to say the pattern through which the ''qi'' develops, that is the polarity of ''yin'' and ''yang''.{{sfnb|Teiser|1996|p=30}}<ref name="Adler, 2011. p. 13">Adler, 2011. [http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Non-theistic.pdf p. 13] {{Webarchive|url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Non-theistic.pdf |date=9 October 2022 }}</ref>  In [[Taoism]] the ''[[Tao]]'' {{lang-zh|道}} ("Way") denotes in one concept both the impersonal absolute ''Tian'' and its order of manifestation (''li'').

===''Yin'' and ''yang''—''gui'' and ''shen''===
{{Main|Yin and yang|Shen (Chinese religion)}}
{{Infobox
| bodystyle        = width:16em
| above            = <small>''Yīnyáng'' {{lang-zh|陰陽}} motifs</small>
| image            = {{image array|perrow=2|height=80|width=80
| image1 = Natürlich gewachsenes yin-yang-.jpg
| image2 = Yinyang, heaven + squared earth (+ circumpolar seven stars + mountain) --- colour.svg
}}
| below            = Yin and yang naturally formed in a log in [[Germany]], and in a cosmological diagram as {{lang-zh|地}} ''[[Di (Chinese concept)|Dì]]'' (a mountain growing to Heaven and a square as its order) and ''[[Tian|Tiān]]'' as the [[Big Dipper]].{{refn|group=note|In common Chinese cosmology, the world is not created ''ex nihilo'' from an external god, but evolves from the primordial chaos (''[[Hundun]]''). One way this has been commonly expressed is in terms of the ''[[Taiji (philosophy)|Taiji]]'' symbol of yin and yang. The outer circle represents the primordial chaos out of which spontaneously emerges the fundamental polarity of yin (dark) and yang (light), which then produce the "myriad things" or "ten thousand things" (''wàn'' {{lang-zh|卍}}) by combination and recombination".<ref>Adler, 2011. p. 22</ref>}}
| belowstyle       = text-align:left
}}

[[File:Quanjunxi Linggong - DSCF8614.JPG|thumb|{{lang-zh|泉郡溪靈宮}} ''Quánjùnxī línggōng'', the "Numinous Palace by the Brook in the Land of Springs", in [[Quanzhou]], [[Fujian]].{{refn|group=note|Temples are usually built in accordance with ''[[feng shui]]'' methods, which hold that any thing needs to be arranged in equilibrium with the surrounding world in order to thrive. Names of holy spaces often describe, [[poetry|poetically]], their collocation within the world.}}]]

''Yin'' {{lang-zh|陰}} and ''yang'' {{lang-zh|陽}}, whose root meanings respectively are "shady" and "sunny", or "dark" and "light", are modes of manifestation of the ''qi'', not material things in themselves. Yin is the ''qi'' in its dense, dark, sinking, wet, condensing mode; yang denotes the light, and the bright, rising, dry, expanding modality. Described as ''[[Taiji (philosophy)|Taiji]]'' (the "Great Pole"), they represent the polarity and complementarity that enlivens the [[cosmos]].<ref name="Adler, 2011. p. 13"/> They can also be conceived as "disorder" and "order", "activity" or "passivity", with act (''yang'') usually preferred over receptiveness (''yin'').<ref name="Thien Do, 2003, pp. 10-11">Thien Do, 2003, pp. 10–11</ref>

The concept {{lang-zh|神}} "''shén''" (cognate of {{lang-zh|申}} ''shēn'', "extending, expanding"<ref name="Adler, 2011. p. 16">Adler, 2011. p. 16</ref>) is translated as "gods" or "spirits". There are ''shén'' of nature; gods who were once people, such as the warrior [[Guan Gong]]; household gods, such as the [[Kitchen God|Stove God]]; as well as ancestral gods (''zu'' or ''zuxian'').<ref name="Adler, 2011. p. 14"/> In the domain of humanity the ''shen'' is the "psyche", or the power or agency within humans.{{sfnb|Teiser|1996|p=31}} They are intimately involved in the life of this world.{{sfnb|Teiser|1996|p=31}} As spirits of stars, mountains and streams, ''shen'' exert a direct influence on things, making phenomena appear and things grow or extend themselves.{{sfnb|Teiser|1996|p=31}} An early Chinese dictionary, the ''[[Shuowen jiezi]]'' by [[Xu Shen]], explains that they "are the spirits of Heaven" and they "draw out the ten thousand things".{{sfnb|Teiser|1996|p=31}} As forces of growth the gods are regarded as ''yang'', opposed to a ''yin'' class of entities called {{lang-zh|鬼}} "''[[ghosts in Chinese culture|guǐ]]''" (cognate of {{lang-zh|歸}} ''guī'', "return, contraction"),<ref name="Adler, 2011. p. 16"/> chaotic beings.{{sfnb|Teiser|1996|p=32}} A disciple of [[Zhu Xi]] noted that "between Heaven and Earth there is no thing that does not consist of yin and yang, and there is no place where yin and yang are not found. Therefore, there is no place where gods and spirits do not exist".{{sfnb|Teiser|1996|p=32}} The [[Chinese dragon|dragon]] is a symbol of ''yang'', the principle of generation.<ref name="Libbrecht 2007. p. 43"/>

In [[Taoism|Taoist]] and [[Confucianism|Confucian]] thought, the supreme God and its order and the multiplicity of ''shen'' are identified as one and the same.<ref name="Zongqi Cai, 2004. p. 314">Zongqi Cai, 2004. p. 314</ref> In the ''[[Yizhuan]]'', a commentary to the ''[[Yijing]]'', it is written that "one ''yin'' and one ''yang'' are called the Tao ... the unfathomable change of ''yin'' and ''yang'' is called ''shen''".<ref name="Zongqi Cai, 2004. p. 314"/> In other texts, with a tradition going back to the [[Han dynasty|Han period]], the gods and spirits are explained to be names of ''yin'' and ''yang'', forces of contraction and forces of growth.<ref name="Zongqi Cai, 2004. p. 314"/>

While in popular thought they have conscience and personality,<ref>Adler, 2011. p. 17</ref> Neo-Confucian scholars tended to rationalise them.<ref>Adler, 2011. p. 15</ref> Zhu Xi wrote that they act according to the ''li''.<ref name="Adler, 2011. p. 16"/> [[Zhang Zai]] wrote that they are "the inherent potential (''liang neng'') of the two ways of ''qi''".<ref>Adler, 2011. pp. 15–16</ref> [[Cheng Yi (philosopher)|Cheng Yi]] said that they are "traces of the creative process".<ref name="Adler, 2011. p. 16"/> [[Chen Chun]] wrote that ''shen'' and ''gui'' are expansions and contractions, going and coming, of ''yin'' and ''yang''—''qi''.<ref name="Adler, 2011. p. 16"/>

===''Hun'' and ''po'', and ''zu'' and ''xian''===
[[File:Temple of the Filial Blessing in Ouhai, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China (2).jpg|thumb|Temple of the Filial Blessing ({{lang-zh|孝佑宮}} ''Xiàoyòugōng'') in [[Ouhai District|Ouhai]], [[Wenzhou]], [[Zhejiang]]. It is a place for the worship of ancestors.]]
Like all things in matter, the human soul is characterised by a [[Dialectics|dialectic]] of ''yang'' and ''yin''. These correspond to the [[hun and po|''hun'' and ''po'']] ({{lang-zh|魂魄}}) respectively. The ''hun'' is the traditionally "masculine", ''yang'', rational soul or mind, and the ''po'' is the traditionally "feminine", ''yin'', animal soul that is associated with the body.<ref>Adler, 2011. p. 19</ref> ''Hun'' (mind) is the soul (''shen'') that gives a form to the vital breath (''qi'') of humans, and it develops through the ''po'', stretching and moving intelligently in order to grasp things.<ref>Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 68</ref> The ''po'' is the soul (''shen'') which controls the physiological and psychological activities of humans,<ref name="Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 69">Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 69</ref> while the ''hun'', the ''shen'' attached to the vital breath (''qi''), is the soul (''shen'') that is totally independent of corporeal substance.<ref name="Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 69"/> The ''hun'' is independent and perpetual, and as such it never allows itself to be limited in matter.<ref name="Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 69"/>{{refn|group=note|The ''po'' can be compared with the ''[[psyche (psychology)|psyche]]'' or ''[[thymos]]'' of the Greek philosophy and tradition, while the ''hun'' with the ''[[pneuma]]'' or "immortal soul".<ref name="Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 69"/>}} Otherwise said, the ''po'' is the [[Di (Chinese concept)|"earthly" (''di'')]] soul that goes downward, while the ''hun'' is the "heavenly" (''tian'') soul that moves upward.{{sfnb|Teiser|1996|p=31}}

To extend life to its full potential the human ''shen'' must be cultivated, resulting in ever clearer, more luminous states of being.<ref name="Teiser, 1996"/> It can transform in the pure intelligent breath of deities.<ref name="Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 69"/> In the human psyche there's no distinction between rationality and intuition, thinking and feeling: the human being is ''xin'' ({{lang-zh|心}}), mind-heart.<ref name="Adler, 2011. p. 21"/> With death, while the ''po'' returns to the earth and disappears, the ''hun'' is thought to be pure awareness or ''qi'', and is the ''shen'' to whom ancestral sacrifices are dedicated.<ref>Adler, 2011. pp. 19–20</ref>

The ''shen'' of men who are properly cultivated and honoured after their death are upheld [[ancestor]]s and [[progenitor]]s (''zuxian'' {{lang-zh|祖先}} or ''zu'' {{lang-zh|祖}}).<ref name="Adler, 2011. p. 14">Adler, 2011. p. 14</ref> When ancestries aren't properly cultivated the world falls into disruption, and they become ''gui''.<ref name="Adler, 2011. p. 14"/> Ancestral worship is intertwined with [[totemism]], as the earliest ancestors of an ethnic lineage are often represented as animals or associated to them.<ref name="Wang, 2004. pp. 60-61"/><ref>Sautman, 1997. p. 78</ref>

Ancestors are means of connection with the ''[[Tian]]'', the primordial god which does not have form.<ref name="Wang, 2004. pp. 60-61"/> As ancestors have form, they shape the destiny of humans.<ref name="Wang, 2004. pp. 60-61"/> Ancestors who have had a significant impact in shaping the destiny of large groups of people, creators of genetic lineages or spiritual traditions, and historical leaders who have invented crafts and institutions for the wealth of the Chinese nation ([[culture hero]]es), are exalted among the highest divine manifestations or immortal beings (''[[xian (Taoism)|xian]]'' {{lang-zh|仙}}).{{sfnp|Yao|2010|pp=162, 165}}

In fact, in the Chinese tradition there is no distinction between gods (''shen'') and immortal beings (''xian''), transcendental principles and their bodily manifestations.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|pp=158–161}} Gods can incarnate with a human form and human beings can reach higher spiritual states by the right way of action, that is to say by emulating the order of Heaven.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=159}} Humans are considered one of the three aspects of a trinity ({{lang-zh|三才}} ''Sāncái'', "Three Powers"),{{sfnp|Yao|2010|pp=162–164}} the three foundations of all being; specifically, men are the medium between Heaven that engenders order and forms and Earth which receives and nourishes them.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|pp=162–164}} Men are endowed with the role of completing creation.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|pp=162–164}}{{refn|group=note|name=Sancai|By the words of the [[Han dynasty]] scholar Dong Zhongshu: "Heaven, Earth and humankind are the foundations of all living things. Heaven engenders all living things, Earth nourishes them, and humankind completes them." In the ''[[Daodejing]]'': "Tao is great. Heaven is great. Earth is great. And the king [humankind] is also great." The concept of the Three Powers / Agents / Ultimates is furtherly discussed in Confucian commentaries of the ''[[Yijing]]''.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=164}}}}

===''Bao ying'' and ''ming yun''===
{{Main|Bao ying|Ming yun}}
[[File:安平天后宮石將軍.JPG|thumb|Altar to the Stone Generals, protective deities, at the Kantai Tianhou Temple in [[Anping District|Anping]], [[Tainan]], [[Taiwan]].]]

The Chinese traditional concept of ''bao ying'' ("reciprocity", "retribution" or "judgement"), is inscribed in the cosmological view of an ordered world, in which all manifestations of being have an allotted span (''shu'') and [[destiny]],{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=166}} and are rewarded according to the moral-cosmic quality of their actions.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=25}} It determines [[fate]], as written in [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] texts: "on the doer of good, heaven sends down all blessings, and on the doer of evil, he sends down all calamities" ({{lang-zh|書經•湯誥}}).{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=26}}

The cosmic significance of ''bao ying'' is better understood by exploring other two traditional concepts of fate and meaning:{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=21}}
* ''[[Ming yun]]'' ({{lang-zh|命運}}), the personal destiny or given condition of a being in his world, in which ''ming'' is "life" or "right", the given status of life, and ''yun'' defines both "circumstance" and "individual choice"; ''ming'' is given and influenced by the transcendent force ''Tian'' ({{lang-zh|天}}), that is the same as the "divine right" (''tianming'') of ancient rulers as identified by [[Mencius]].{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=21}} Personal destiny (''ming yun'') is thus perceived as both fixed (as life itself) and flexible, open-ended (since the individual can choose how to behave in ''bao ying'').{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=21}}
* ''[[Yuan fen]]'' ({{lang-zh|緣分}}), "fateful [[coincidence]]",{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=23}} describing good and bad chances and potential relationships.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=23}} Scholars K. S. Yang and D. Ho have analysed the psychological advantages of this belief: assigning causality of both negative and positive events to ''yuan fen'' reduces the conflictual potential of guilt and pride, and preserves social harmony.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=24}}

''Ming yun'' and ''yuan fen'' are linked, because what appears on the surface to be chance (either positive or negative), is part of the deeper rhythm that shapes personal life based on how destiny is directed.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=25}} Recognising this connection has the result of making a person responsible for his or her actions:{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=26}} doing good for others spiritually improves oneself and contributes to the harmony between men and environmental gods and thus to the wealth of a human community.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|pp=26–27}}

These three themes of the Chinese tradition—moral reciprocity, personal destiny, fateful coincidence—are completed by a fourth notion:{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=27}}

* ''[[Wu (Chinese religion)|Wu]]'' ({{lang-zh|悟}}), "awareness" of ''bao ying''. The awareness of one's own given condition inscribed in the ordered world produces responsibility towards oneself and others; awareness of ''yuan fen'' stirs to respond to events rather than resigning.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=27}} Awareness may arrive as a gift, often unbidden, and then it evolves into a practice that the person intentionally follows.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=27}}

As part of the trinity of being (the Three Powers), humans are not totally submissive to spiritual force.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=164}} While under the sway of spiritual forces, humans can actively engage with them, striving to change their own fate to prove the worth of their earthly life.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=164}} In the Chinese traditional view of human destiny, the dichotomy between "fatalism" and "optimism" is overcome; human beings can shape their personal destiny to grasp their real worth in the transformation of the universe, seeing their place in the alliance with the gods and with Heaven to surpass the constraints of the physical body and mind.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=164}}

===''Ling'' and ''xianling''—holy and numen===
{{Main|Ling (Chinese religion)|Xian ling (religion)}}
[[File:Ch-brahma-temple.jpg|thumb|Temple of [[Brahma]], or [[Simianshen]] ({{lang-zh|四面神}} "Four-Faced God") in Chinese, in [[Changhua]], [[Taiwan]]. The [[Thailand|Thai]]-style worship of Simianshen has its origins among [[Thai Chinese]], and has spread over the last few decades among Mainland Chinese and [[Overseas Chinese]] populations.]]
[[File:Zhen-Wu Temple in Wuci Township.JPG|thumb|A shrine dedicated to [[Xuanwu (god)|Zhenwu]] in [[Wuqi District|Wuqi]], [[Taichung]], Taiwan.]]

In Chinese religion the concept of ''[[ling (Chinese religion)|ling]]'' ({{lang-zh|靈}}) is the equivalent of [[sacred|holy]] and [[numen]].<ref>Thien Do, 2003, p. 9</ref> ''Shen'' in the meaning of "spiritual" is a synonym.{{sfnb|Teiser|1996|p=32}} The ''[[Yijing]]'' states that "spiritual means not measured by yin and yang".{{sfnb|Teiser|1996|p=32}} ''Ling'' is the state of the "medium" of the bivalency (''yin''-''yang''), and thus it is identical with the inchoate order of creation.<ref name="Thien Do, 2003, pp. 10-11"/> Things inspiring awe or wonder because they cannot be understood as either ''yin'' or ''yang'', because they cross or disrupt the polarity and therefore cannot be conceptualised, are regarded as numinous.{{sfnb|Teiser|1996|p=32}} Entities possessing unusual spiritual characteristics, such as [[albino]] members of a species, beings that are part animal part human, or people who die in unusual ways such as suicide or on battlefields, are considered numinous.{{sfnb|Teiser|1996|p=32}}

The notion of ''xian ling'' ({{lang-zh|顯靈}}), variously translated as "divine efficacy, virtue" or the "numen", is important for the relationship between people and gods.<ref>Zavidovskaya, 2012. pp. 179–183</ref> It describes the manifestation, activity, of the power of a god ({{lang-zh|靈氣}} ''ling qi'', "divine energy" or "effervescence"), the evidence of the holy.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 183-184">Zavidovskaya, 2012. pp. 183–184</ref>

The term ''xian ling'' may be interpreted as the god revealing their [[divine presence|presence]] in a particular area and temple,<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 184">Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 184</ref> through events that are perceived as extraordinary, [[miracle|miraculous]].<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 184"/> Divine power usually manifests in the presence of a wide public.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 184"/> The "value" of human deities (''xian'') is judged according to their efficacy.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=168}} The perceived effectiveness of a deity to protect or bless also determines how much they should be worshipped, how big a temple should be built in their honour, and what position in the broader pantheon they would attain.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=168}}

Zavidovskaya (2012) has studied how the incentive of temple restorations since the 1980s in [[northern and southern China|northern China]] was triggered by numerous alleged instances of gods becoming "active" and "returning", reclaiming their temples and place in society.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 184"/> She mentions the example of a Chenghuang Temple in [[Yulin, Shaanxi|Yulin]], [[Shaanxi]], that was turned into a [[granary]] during the [[Cultural Revolution]]; it was restored to its original function in the 1980s after seeds stored within were always found to have rotted. This phenomenon, which locals attributed to the god Chenghuang, was taken a sign to empty his residence of grain and allow him back in.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 184"/> The ''ling qi'', divine energy, is believed to accumulate in certain places, temples, making them [[holy]].<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 184"/> Temples with a longer history are considered holier than newly built ones, which still need to be filled by divine energy.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 184"/>

Another example Zavidovskaya cites is the cult of the god Zhenwu in Congluo Yu, [[Shanxi]];<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 185">Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 185</ref> the god's temples were in ruins and the cult inactive until the mid-1990s, when a man with terminal cancer, in his last hope prayed (''bai'' {{lang-zh|拜}}) to Zhenwu. The man began to miraculously recover each passing day, and after a year he was completely healed.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 185"/> As thanksgiving, he organised an opera performance in the god's honour.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 185"/> A temporary altar with a statue of Zhenwu and a stage for the performance were set up in an open space at the foot of a mountain.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 185"/> During the course of the opera, large white snakes appeared, passive and unafraid of the people, seemingly watching the opera; the snakes were considered by locals to be incarnations of Zhenwu, come to watch the opera held in his honour.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 185"/>

Within temples, it is common to see banners bearing the phrase "if the heart is sincere, the god will reveal their power" ({{lang-zh|心誠神靈}} ''xin cheng shen ling'').<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 183">Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 183</ref> The relationship between people and gods is an exchange of favour.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 183"/> This implies the belief that gods respond to the entreaties of the believer if their religious fervour is sincere (''cheng xin'' {{lang-zh|誠心}}).<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 183"/> If a person believes in the god's power with all their heart and expresses piety, the gods are confident in their faith and reveal their efficacious power.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 183"/> At the same time, for faith to strengthen in the devotee's heart, the deity has to prove their efficacy.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 183"/> In exchange for divine favours, a faithful honours the deity with vows (''huan yuan'' {{lang-zh|還願}} or ''xu yuan'' {{lang-zh|許願}}), through individual worship, reverence and respect (''jing shen'' {{lang-zh|敬神}}).<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 183"/>

The most common display of divine power is the cure of diseases after a believer piously requests aid.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 184"/> Another manifestation is granting a request of children.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 184"/> The deity may also manifest through mediumship, entering the body of a shaman-medium and speaking through them.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 184"/> There have been cases of people curing illnesses "on behalf of a god" (''ti shen zhi bing'' {{lang-zh|替神治病}}).<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 185"/> Gods may also speak to people when they are asleep (''tuomeng'' {{lang-zh|託夢}}).<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 184"/>