Ancient Rome

===Nerva–Antonine dynasty===
[[File:RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png|thumb|The [[Roman Empire]] reached its greatest extent under [[Trajan]] in AD&nbsp;117]]
Following Domitian's murder, the Senate rapidly appointed Nerva as Emperor. Nerva had noble ancestry, and he had served as an advisor to Nero and the Flavians. His rule restored many of the traditional liberties of Rome's upper classes, which Domitian had over-ridden.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html | title=Cassius Dio — Epitome of Book 68 }}</ref><ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 1.</ref> The [[Nerva–Antonine dynasty]] from 96 AD to 192 AD included the "five good emperors" [[Nerva]], Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius; and ended with [[Commodus]].

Nerva abdicated and died in 98&nbsp;AD, and was succeeded by the general [[Trajan]]. Trajan is credited with the restoration of traditional privileges and rights of commoner and senatorial classes, which later Roman historians claim to have been eroded during Domitian's autocracy.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html] Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 6.</ref> [[Trajan's Dacian Wars|Trajan fought three Dacian wars]], winning territories roughly equivalent to modern-day [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]]. He undertook an ambitious public building program in Rome, including [[Trajan's Forum]], [[Trajan's Market]] and [[Trajan's Column]], with the architect [[Apollodorus of Damascus]]. He remodelled the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] and extended the [[Circus Maximus]].<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html] Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 13.</ref> When [[Parthia]] appointed a king for [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]] without consulting Rome, [[Trajan's Parthian campaign|Trajan declared war on Parthia]] and deposed the king of Armenia. In 115 he took the Northern Mesopotamian cities of [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]] and [[Suruç|Batnae]], organised a province of [[Mesopotamia (Roman province)|Mesopotamia]] (116), and issued coins that claimed Armenia and Mesopotamia were under the authority of the Roman people.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html] Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 17–30.</ref> In that same year, he captured [[Seleucia]] and the Parthian capital [[Ctesiphon]] (near modern [[Baghdad]]).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Emperors of Rome: The Story of Imperial Rome from Julius Caesar to the Last Emperor |date=2014 |publisher=Hachette UK |page=64}}</ref> After defeating a Parthian revolt and a [[Kitos War|Jewish revolt]], he withdrew due to health issues, and in 117, he died of [[edema]].

[[File:Hadrians Wall map.png|thumb|Map showing the location of [[Hadrian's Wall]] and the [[Antonine Wall]] in Scotland and Northern England]]
Many Romans emigrated to Hispania (modern-day Spain and [[Portugal]]) and stayed for generations, in some cases intermarrying with [[Iberians]]; one of these families produced the emperor [[Hadrian]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples |date=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |page=406}}</ref> Hadrian withdrew all the troops stationed in Parthia, Armenia and Mesopotamia (modern-day [[Iraq]]), abandoning Trajan's conquests. Hadrian's army crushed a revolt in [[Mauretania]] and the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] in Judea. This was the last large-scale Jewish revolt against the Romans, and was suppressed with massive repercussions in Judea. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed. Hadrian renamed the province of Judea "[[Syria Palaestina|Provincia Syria Palaestina]]", after one of Judea's most hated enemies.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2/page/15 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 4 |date=2005 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0802824165 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2/page/15 15]}}</ref> He constructed fortifications and walls, like the celebrated [[Hadrian's Wall]] which separated Roman Britannia and the tribes of modern-day Scotland. Hadrian promoted culture, especially the Greek. He forbade [[torture]] and humanised the laws. His many building projects included aqueducts, baths, libraries and theatres; additionally, he travelled nearly every province in the Empire to review military and infrastructural conditions.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/1*.html] Historia Augusta, ''Life of Hadrian''.</ref> Following Hadrian's death in 138 AD, his successor [[Antoninus Pius]] built temples, theatres, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of [[rhetoric]] and philosophy. On becoming emperor, Antoninus made few initial changes, leaving intact as far as possible the arrangements instituted by his predecessor. Antoninus expanded Roman Britannia by invading what is now southern Scotland and building the [[Antonine Wall]].<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Antoninus_Pius*.html#ref34] ''Historia Augusta'', ''Life of Antoninus Pius'', V, 4.</ref> He also continued Hadrian's policy of humanising the laws. He died in 161&nbsp;AD.

[[File:20190406-DSC5193 Panteon.jpg|thumb|The [[Pantheon, Rome]], built during the reign of [[Hadrian]], which still contains the largest unreinforced concrete [[dome]] in the world]]

[[Marcus Aurelius]], known as the Philosopher, was the last of the [[Five Good Emperors]]. He was a stoic philosopher and wrote the ''[[Meditations]]''. He defeated barbarian tribes in the [[Marcomannic Wars]] as well as the [[Parthian Empire]].<ref name="Dio LXXII">{{Citation |chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/72*.html#36 |author=Cassius Dio |title=Roman History |chapter=Epitome of Book LXXII |author-link=Cassius Dio}}</ref> His co-emperor, [[Lucius Verus]], died in 169&nbsp;AD, probably from the [[Antonine Plague]], a pandemic that killed nearly five million people through the Empire in 165–180&nbsp;AD.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4381924.stm Past pandemics that ravaged Europe] by Verity Murphy. [[BBC News]]. 7 November 2005.</ref>

From Nerva to Marcus Aurelius, the empire achieved an unprecedented status. The powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces. All the citizens enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth. The image of a free constitution was preserved with decent reverence. The Roman senate appeared to possess the sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the executive powers of government. Gibbon declared the rule of these "Five Good Emperors" the golden era of the Empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |date=1906 |publisher=Fred de Fau and Co. |editor-last=Bury |editor-first=J.B. |language=en |chapter=Chapter I |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/731}}</ref> During this time, Rome reached its greatest territorial extent.<ref>[http://www.unrv.com/early-empire/five-good-emperors.php Five Good Emperors] from UNRV History. Retrieved 12 March 2007.</ref>

[[Commodus]], son of Marcus Aurelius, became emperor after his father's death. He is not counted as one of the Five Good Emperors, due to his direct kinship with the latter emperor; in addition, he was militarily passive. [[Cassius Dio]] identifies his reign as the beginning of Roman [[decadence]]: "(Rome has transformed) from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust."<ref name="Dio LXXII"/>