Racial segregation

=== Religious and racial antisemitism ===

{{Main|Antisemitism|History of antisemitism|Religious antisemitism|Antisemitism in Christianity|History of European Jews in the Middle Ages|History of the Jews in Europe|Jewish ghettos in Europe|Antisemitism in Islam|History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Mellah|Racial antisemitism}}

[[History of the Jews in Europe|Jews in Europe]] were generally forced, by decree or by informal pressure, to live in highly segregated [[ghetto]]s and [[shtetl]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Wirth, Louis]] |title=The Ghetto |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=1997 |isbn=1-56000-983-7 |pages=29–40}}.</ref> In 1204, the [[papacy]] required Jews to segregate themselves from Christians and it also required them to wear distinctive clothing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Short History of the Jewish Tradition |url=http://www2.kenyon.edu/projects/margin/jew.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702212123/http://www2.kenyon.edu/projects/margin/jew.htm |archive-date=2 July 2010 |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=.kenyon.edu}}</ref> Forced segregation of Jews spread throughout Europe during the 14th and 15th centuries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghetto |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/232679/ghetto |website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=14 March 2024 }}</ref> In the [[Russian Empire]], Jews were restricted to the so-called [[Pale of Settlement]], the Western frontier of the Russian Empire which roughly corresponds to the modern-day countries of Poland, [[Lithuania]], [[Belarus]], [[Moldova]] and Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Anti-Semitism in modern Europe |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-215022/anti-Semitism |access-date=18 January 2010 |author=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> By the early 20th century, the majority of Europe's Jews lived in the Pale of Settlement.

From the beginning of the 15th century, Jewish populations in [[Morocco]] were confined to [[mellah]]s. In cities, a ''mellah'' was surrounded by a wall with a fortified gateway. In contrast, rural ''mellahs'' were separate villages whose sole inhabitants were Jews.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Jews of Morocco, by Ralph G. Bennettett |url=http://www.sefarad.org/publication/lm/017/morocco.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106134057/http://www.sefarad.org/publication/lm/017/morocco.html |archive-date=6 January 2010 |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=Sefarad.org}}</ref>

In the middle of the 19th century, [[J. J. Benjamin]] wrote about the lives of [[History of Jews in Iran|Persian Jews]]:
{{blockquote|…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town…; for they are considered as unclean creatures…  Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity, and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt…  For the same reason, they are prohibited to go out when it rains; for it is said the rain would wash dirt off them, which would sully the feet of the Mussulmans…  If a Jew is recognized as such in the streets, he is subjected to the greatest insults. The passers-by spit in his face, and sometimes beat him… unmercifully…  If a Jew enters a shop for anything, he is forbidden to inspect the goods… Should his hand incautiously touch the goods, he must take them at any price the seller chooses to ask for them... Sometimes the Persians intrude into the dwellings of the Jews and take possession of whatever please them. Should the owner make the least opposition in defense of his property, he incurs the danger of atoning for it with his life... If... a Jew shows himself in the street during the three days of the Katel (Muharram)…, he is sure to be murdered.<ref>Lewis (1984), pp. 181–183</ref>}}

On 16 May 1940 in Norway, the {{Lang|no|[[Administrasjonsrådet]]}} asked the [[Reichskommissariat Norwegen|Rikskommisariatet]] why radio receivers had been confiscated from Jews in Norway.<ref name="Folk, fører og frifinnelse">{{Cite web |last=Bomann-larsen |first=Tor |title=Folk, fører og frifinnelse |url=https://www.aftenposten.no/article/ap-aw0BO.html |website=Aftenposten|date=29 December 2011 }}</ref> That {{Lang|no|Administrasjonsrådet}} thereafter "quietly" accepted<ref name="Folk, fører og frifinnelse" /> racial segregation between Norwegian citizens, has been claimed by [[Tor Bomann-Larsen]]. Furthermore, he claimed that this segregation "created a [[precedent]]. 2 years later (with ''NS-styret'' in the ministries of Norway) Norwegian police [[Jewish deportees from Norway during World War II|arrested citizens at the addresses]] where radios had previously been confiscated from Jews.<ref name="Folk, fører og frifinnelse" />

==== Fascist Italy ====

{{Main|Italian fascism|Italian fascism and racism}}

In 1938, under pressure from the Nazis, the [[Italian Fascism|fascist regime]], which was led by [[Benito Mussolini]], passed a series of [[Italian Racial Laws|racial laws]] which instituted an official segregationist policy in the [[Kingdom of Italy|Italian Empire]], this policy was especially directed against [[Italian Jews]]. This policy enforced various segregationist norms, like the laws which banned Jews from teaching or studying in ordinary schools and universities, banned Jews from owning industries that were reputed to be very important to the nation, banned Jews from working as journalists, banned Jews from joining the military, and banned Jews from marrying non-Jews.
As an immediate consequence of the introduction of the 'provvedimenti per la difesa della razza' (norms for the defence of the race), many of the best Italian scientists quit their jobs, and some of them also left Italy. Amongst these scientists were the internationally-known physicists [[Emilio Segrè]], [[Enrico Fermi]] (whose wife was Jewish), [[Bruno Pontecorvo]], [[Bruno Rossi]], [[Tullio Levi-Civita]], mathematicians [[Federigo Enriques]] and [[Guido Fubini]] and even the fascist propaganda director, art critic and journalist [[Margherita Sarfatti]], who was one of Mussolini's mistresses. [[Rita Levi-Montalcini]], who would successively win the [[Nobel Prize for Medicine]], was forbidden to work at the university. Upon the passage of the racial law, [[Albert Einstein]] cancelled his honorary membership in the {{Lang|it|[[Accademia dei Lincei]]|italic=no}}.

After 1943, when [[Northern Italy]] was [[Kingdom of Italy#Civil war (1943–1945)|occupied by the Nazis]], Italian Jews were rounded up and became victims of the [[The Holocaust in Italy|Holocaust]].

==== Nazi Germany ====

{{Main|Nazism|Nazi racial theories|Racial policy of Nazi Germany}}
{{See also|Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany|Nur für Deutsche}}

[[File:Nur fur deutsche.jpg|thumb|upright|"Nur für deutsche Fahrgäste" ("Only for German passengers") on the tram number 8 in German-occupied [[Kraków]], Poland]]

German praise for America's system of [[institutional racism]], which was expressed in [[Adolf Hitler]]'s ''[[Mein Kampf]]'', was continuous throughout the early 1930s.<ref name="Whitman" /> The U.S. was the global leader of codified racism, and its race laws fascinated the Germans.<ref name="Whitman" /> The ''National Socialist Handbook for Law and Legislation'' of 1934–35, edited by Hitler's lawyer [[Hans Frank]], contains a pivotal essay by Herbert Kier on the recommendations for race legislation which devoted a quarter of its pages to U.S. legislation—from segregation, race-based citizenship, immigration regulations, and [[anti-miscegenation]].<ref name="Whitman" /> This directly inspired the two principal [[Nuremberg Laws]]—the Citizenship Law and the Blood Law.<ref name="Whitman">{{Cite book |last=Whitman |first=James Q. |title=Hitler's American Model: The United States and the Making of Nazi Race Law |date=2017 |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=37–43}}</ref> The ban on interracial marriage (anti-miscegenation) prohibited sexual relations and marriages between people classified as "[[Aryan]]" and "non-Aryan". Such relationships were called ''[[Rassenschande]]'' (race defilement). At first the laws were aimed primarily at Jews but were later extended to "[[Romani people|Gypsies]], [[Negro]]es".<ref>{{Cite book |last=S. H. Milton |title=Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2001 |isbn=9780691086842 |editor-last=Robert Gellately and Nathan Stoltzfus |pages=216, 231 |chapter="Gypsies" as social outsiders in Nazi Germany}}</ref><ref name="Burleigh1991">{{Cite book |last=Michael Burleigh |url=https://archive.org/details/racialstate00mich |title=The Racial State: Germany 1933–1945 |date=7 November 1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-39802-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/racialstate00mich/page/49 49] |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Laws for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour |date=15 September 1935 |chapter=1 |quote=Marriages between Jews and citizens of German or kindred blood are forbidden. Marriages concluded in defiance of this law are void, even if, for the purpose of evading this law, they were concluded abroad.}}</ref> Aryans found guilty could face incarceration in a [[Nazi concentration camp]], while non-Aryans could face the death penalty.<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Leila J. Rupp]] |title=Mobilizing Women for War |year=1978 |isbn=0-691-04649-2 |page=125|publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref> To preserve the so-called purity of the German blood, after the war began, the Nazis extended the race defilement law to include all foreigners (non-Germans).<ref name="Majer2003">{{Cite book |last=Diemut Majer |title="Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945 |publisher=JHU Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8018-6493-3 |page=180}}</ref>

Under the General Government of [[occupied Poland]] in 1940, the Nazis divided the population into different groups, each with different rights, food rations, allowed housing strips in the cities, public transportation, etc. In an effort to split the Polish people's identity, they attempted to establish ethnic divisions of [[Kashubians]] and [[Gorals]] ([[Goralenvolk]]), based on these groups' alleged "Germanic component".

During the 1930s and 1940s, Jews in [[German-occupied Europe|Nazi-controlled states]] were forced to wear something that identified them as Jewish, such as a [[yellow badge|yellow ribbon or a star of David]], and along with [[Romani people|Romas]] (Gypsies), they were subjected to discrimination by the racial laws. Jewish doctors were not allowed to treat [[Aryan race|Aryan]] patients and Jewish professors were not permitted to teach Aryan pupils. In addition, Jews were not allowed to use any form of public transportation, besides the ferry, and they were only allowed to shop in Jewish stores from 3–5 pm. After ''[[Kristallnacht]]'' ("The Night of Broken Glass"), the Jews were fined {{Reichsmark|1,000,000,000|link=yes}} for the damage which was done by Nazi troops and [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] members.

[[File:Lwow Ghetto (spring 1942).jpg|thumb|left|Women behind the barbed wire fence of the [[Lwów Ghetto]] in occupied Poland, Spring 1942]]

[[Jews]], [[Polish people|Poles]], and [[Romani people|Roma]] were subjected to [[genocide]] as "undesirable" racial groups in [[The Holocaust]]. The Nazis established [[Ghettos in occupied Europe 1939–1944|ghettos]] in order to confine Jews and sometimes, they confined Romas in tightly packed areas of the cities of [[Eastern Europe]], turning them into ''[[de facto]]'' [[concentration camp]]s. The [[Warsaw Ghetto]] was the largest of these ghettos, with 400,000 people. The [[Łódź Ghetto]] was the second largest, holding about 160,000.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 November 1939 |title=Holocaust Timeline: The Ghettos |url=http://fcit.usf.edu/HOLOCAUST/timeline/ghettos.htm |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=Fcit.usf.edu}}</ref>

Between 1939 and 1945, at least 1.5 million [[Poland|Polish]] citizens were transported to the Reich for [[forced labour]] (in all, about 12 million forced laborers were employed in the German war economy inside [[Nazi Germany]]).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Michael Marek |title=Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers |url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1757323,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810111755/https://www.dw.com/en/final-compensation-pending-for-former-nazi-forced-laborers/a-1757323 |archive-date=10 August 2015 |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=Dw-world.de}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Forced Labor at Ford Werke AG during the Second World War |url=http://summeroftruth.org/enemy/barracks.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014235036/http://summeroftruth.org/enemy/barracks.html |archive-date=14 October 2007 |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=Summeroftruth.org}}</ref> Although Nazi Germany also used forced laborers from Western Europe, [[Polish people|Poles]], along with other Eastern Europeans viewed as racially inferior,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hitler's Plans |url=http://www.dac.neu.edu/holocaust/Hitlers_Plans.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401234751/http://www.dac.neu.edu/holocaust/Hitlers_Plans.htm |archive-date=1 April 2010 |access-date=5 April 2016 |publisher=Dac.neu.edu}}</ref>  were subject to deeper discriminatory measures. They were forced to wear a yellow with purple border and letter "[[P (Nazi symbol)|P]]" (for Polen/Polish) cloth identifying tag sewn to their clothing, subjected to a [[curfew]], and banned from [[public transportation]].

While the treatment of factory workers or farm hands often varied depending on the individual employer, Polish laborers, as a rule, were compelled to work longer hours for lower wages than Western Europeans – in many cities, they were forced to live in segregated barracks behind barbed wire. Social relations with [[Germans]] outside work were forbidden, and sexual relations (''[[Rassenschande]]'' or "racial defilement") were punishable by death.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era |url=http://www.holocaust-trc.org/poles.htm |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=Holocaust-trc.org}}</ref>