Middle Ages

===Church life===

[[File:Gregory I - Antiphonary of Hartker of Sankt Gallen.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|alt=Two tonsured men, one with a dove on his shoulders, and the other writing a codex|An 11th-century illustration of Pope [[Pope Gregory I|Gregory the Great]] dictating to a secretary, inspired by the [[Holy Spirit]]]]
The idea of Christian unity endured, although differences in ideology and practice between the Eastern and Western Churches were growing.{{sfn|Brown|2001|p=41}} The native Romans' aversion to the Arian conquerors reinforced the traditional Christian concept of the [[separation of church and state]] in the west, whereas this notion was alien to eastern clergymen who regarded the Roman state as an instrument of divine providence.{{sfn|Brown|2001|p=41}} After the Muslim conquests, the Byzantine emperors could less effectively intervene in the west. When [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] (r. 717–41) prohibited the display of paintings representing human figures in places of worship, the [[Pope|papacy]] openly rejected [[Caesaropapism|his claim]] to declare new dogmas by imperial edicts.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=220–233}} Although the Byzantine Church condemned [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|iconoclasm]] in 843, further issues such as fierce rivalry for ecclesiastic jurisdiction over newly converted peoples, and the [[filioque|unilateral modification]] of the [[Nicene Creed]] in the west widened to the extent that the differences were greater than the similarities.{{sfn|Brown|2001|pp=45–46}} In the west, the [[tithe]], originally a voluntarily contribution, was levied as a regular [[church tax]] on agrarian products from the {{nowrap|10th century}}.{{sfn|Hamilton|2003|p=35}} 

Few of the Western [[bishop]]s looked to the papacy for leadership. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where [[Pope Gregory I|Gregory the Great]] (pope 590–604) had sent a [[Gregorian mission|mission]] to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=170–172}} People did not visit churches regularly. Instead, meetings with itinerant clergy and [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrimages]] to popular saints' [[shrine]]s were instrumental in religious education.{{sfn|Bitel|2002|pp=130–133}} [[Hiberno-Scottish mission|Irish missionaries]] were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and the {{nowrap|7th centuries}}.{{sfn|Colish|2002|pp=62–63}} They were the first to use special handbooks known as [[penitential]]s to determine the appropriate acts of [[penance]]—typically prayers, and [[Fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church|fasts]]—for [[Christian views on sin|sinners]]. They placed a special emphasis on sexuality and prescribed severe penances for adulterers, [[fornication|fornicators]] and those engaged in non-reproductive sexual acts, such as [[Catholic Church and homosexuality|homosexuals]].{{sfn|Bitel|2002|pp=127–130}} In contrast with official Christianity, the [[Bogomilism|Bogomils]] of the Balkans condemned sexual reproduction as they regarded Satan the creator of the physical universe.{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=527–530}}

The Early Middle Ages witnessed the rise of [[Christian monasticism]]. Monastic ideals spread [[Desert Fathers|from Egypt]] through [[Hagiography|hagiographical literature]], especially the ''[[Anthony the Great|Life of Anthony]]''. Most European monasteries were of the type that focuses on community experience of the spiritual life, called [[Cenobitic monasticism|cenobitism]].{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=75–77}} The Italian monk [[Benedict of Nursia]] (d. 547) developed the [[Rule of Saint Benedict|Benedictine Rule]] which became widely used in western monasteries.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=239–240}} In the east, the monastic rules compiled by [[Theodore the Studite]] (d. 826) gained popularity after they were adopted in the [[Great Lavra]] on [[Mount Athos]] in the 960s.{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=322, 495}}

Monasteries had a deep effect on the local society, in various cases acting as [[land trust]]s for powerful families and important centres of political authority.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=185–187}} They were the main and sometimes only outposts of education and literacy in a region. Many of the surviving manuscripts of the Latin [[Classics#Classical Rome|classics]] were copied by monks.{{sfn|Hamilton|2003|pp=43–44}} Monks were also the authors of new works, including history, theology, and other subjects, written by authors such as [[Bede]] (d. 735), a native of northern England.{{sfn|Colish|2002|pp=63–65}} The Byzantine missionary [[Saints Cyril and Methodius|Constantine]] (d. 869) developed [[Old Church Slavonic]] as a new [[liturgical language]], establishing the basis for flourishing Slavic religious literature; around 900 a new script was adopted for it, now known for Constantine's [[monastic name]] as [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]].{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=183–189, 209–213, 219–220}} The erudite [[Duchy of Saxony|Saxon]] nun [[Hrosvitha]] (d. 1000) authored the first non-liturgical medieval dramas.{{sfn|Bitel|2002|pp=285–286}}{{sfn|Colish|2002|p=163}}

In Western Christendom, [[laity|lay]] influence over church affairs came to a climax in the {{nowrap|10th century}}. Aristocrats regarded the churches and monasteries under [[Jus patronatus|their patronage]] as [[proprietary church|their personal property]], and [[simony]]—the sale of church offices—was a common practice. Simony aroused a general fear as many believed that irregularly appointed priests could not confer valid [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|sacraments]] such as [[baptism]].{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=214–216}} Monastic communities were the first to react to this fear by the rigorous observance of their rules. The establishment of [[Cluny Abbey]] in [[Duchy of Burgundy|Burgundy]] in 909 initiated a more radical change as Cluny was freed from lay control and placed under the protection of the papacy. The [[Cluniac Reforms]] indicated that the reformist idea of the "[[libertas ecclesiae|Liberty of the Church]]" could be achieved through submission to the papacy.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=87}}