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Do not fill this in! ==History== {{Main|History of Jerusalem}} {{For timeline}} {{See also|Cartography of Jerusalem|l1=Historical maps of Jerusalem}} Given the city's central position in both Jewish nationalism ([[Zionism]]) and [[Palestinian nationalism]], the selectivity required to summarize some 5,000 years of inhabited history is often [[Historiography and nationalism|influenced by ideological bias or background]].<ref name=NYT7k>{{cite news |title=Israeli Archaeologists Discover 7,000-Year-Old Settlement |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=17 February 2016 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2016/02/17/world/middleeast/ap-ml-israel-ancient-settlement.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229012749/http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2016/02/17/world/middleeast/ap-ml-israel-ancient-settlement.html |archive-date=29 February 2016 |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Israeli or Jewish nationalists claim a right to the city based on Jewish indigeneity to the land, particularly [[History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel|their origins in and descent]] from the [[Israelites]], for whom Jerusalem is their capital, and their yearning for return.<ref>"No city in the world, not even Athens or Rome, ever played as great a role in the life of a nation for so long a time, as Jerusalem has done in the life of the Jewish people." [[David Ben-Gurion]], 1947</ref><ref>"For three thousand years, Jerusalem has been the center of Jewish hope and longing. No other city has played such a dominant role in the history, culture, religion and consciousness of a people as has Jerusalem in the life of Jewry and Judaism. Throughout centuries of exile, Jerusalem remained alive in the hearts of Jews everywhere as the focal point of Jewish history, the symbol of ancient glory, spiritual fulfillment and modern renewal. This heart and soul of the Jewish people engenders the thought that if you want one simple word to symbolize all of Jewish history, that word would be 'Jerusalem.'" [[Teddy Kollek]] (DC: Washington Institute For Near East Policy, 1990), pp. 19–20.</ref> In contrast, Palestinian nationalists claim the right to the city based on modern [[Palestinian people|Palestinians]]' longstanding presence and descent from many different peoples who have settled or lived in the region over the centuries. Another reason for their claim, which is also supported by the [[Arab world|Arab]] and [[Muslim world]], is [[Islamization of Jerusalem|significance of Jerusalem in Islam]].<ref name=Intl1998>{{cite book |author=John Quigley |author-link=John Quigley (academic) |title=The Palestine Yearbook of International Law, 1996–1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n-3PHZLwq7AC&pg=PA32 |year=1998 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=978-90-411-1009-1 |pages=32– |quote=Palestine's claim to Jerusalem is founded on the longtime status of the Palestinian Arabs as the majority population of Palestine. On that basis the Palestinians claim sovereignty over all of Palestine. including Jerusalem, both East and West. The Palestinians claim descent from the Canaanites, the earliest recorded inhabitants of Palestine. Although political control changed hands many times through history, this population, which was Arabized by the Arab conquest of the seventh century A.D., remained into the twentieth century.}}</ref><ref>"(With reference to Palestinians in [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] times) Although proud of their [[Arab people|Arab]] heritage and ancestry, the [[Palestinian people|Palestinians]] considered themselves to be descended not only from Arab conquerors of the seventh century but also from [[indigenous peoples]] who had lived in the country since time immemorial, including the ancient [[Hebrews]] and the [[Canaanites]] before them. Acutely aware of the distinctiveness of Palestinian history, the Palestinians saw themselves as the heirs of its rich associations." [[Walid Khalidi]], 1984, ''Before Their Diaspora: A Photographic History of the Palestinians, 1876–1948''. Institute for Palestine Studies</ref> Both sides claim the history of the city has been politicized by the other in order to strengthen their relative claims to the city,<ref name=Bisharat>{{cite book |last=Bisharat |first=George |title=International Law and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: A Rights-Based Approach to Middle East Peace |publisher=Routledge |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-136-85098-1 |editor1=Susan M. Akram |page=311 |chapter=Maximizing Rights |quote=As we have noted previously the international legal status of Jerusalem is contested and Israel's designation of it as its capital has not been recognized by the international community. However its claims of sovereign rights to the city are stronger with respect to West Jerusalem than with respect to East Jerusalem. |author-link=George Bisharat |editor2=Michael Dumper |editor3=Michael Lynk |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LBOsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA311 |access-date=5 January 2016 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083730/https://books.google.com/books?id=LBOsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA311 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hnn.us/articles/7257.html |title=How Jews and Arabs Use (and Misuse) the History of Jerusalem to Score Points |author=Eric H. Cline |access-date=22 September 2010 |author-link=Eric H. Cline |archive-date=17 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817172605/http://hnn.us/articles/7257.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mythsandfacts.com/conflict/3/jerusalem.pdf |title=One Nation's Capital Throughout History |author=Eli E. Hertz |access-date=22 September 2010 |archive-date=29 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110129015627/http://www.mythsandfacts.com/Conflict/3/Jerusalem.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> and that this is borne out by the different focuses the different writers place on the various events and eras in the city's history. ===Overview of Jerusalem's historical periods (by rulers)=== {{Further|Timeline of Jerusalem}} {{Graphical Overview of Jerusalem's Historical Periods}} ===Prehistory=== The first archaeological evidence of human presence in the area comes in the form of [[flints]] dated to between 6000 and 7000 years ago,<ref name=Greenberg>{{cite web |first1=Raphael |last1=Greenberg |first2=Yonathan |last2=Mizrachi |title=From Shiloah to Silwan – A Visitor's Guide |publisher=Emek Shaveh |date=10 September 2013 |url=https://alt-arch.org/en/from-shiloah-to-silwan-a-visitors-guide |access-date=25 July 2018 |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815180019/https://alt-arch.org/en/from-shiloah-to-silwan-a-visitors-guide |url-status=dead}}</ref> with ceramic remains appearing during the [[Chalcolithic]] period, and the first signs of permanent settlement appearing in the [[Early Bronze Age]] in 3000–2800 BCE.<ref name=Negev>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land |title=Jerusalem |first1=Avraham |last1=Negev |first2=Shimon |last2=Gibson |year=2001 |location=New York and London |pages=260–61 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l3JtAAAAMAAJ |isbn=978-0-8264-1316-1 |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=23 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923091525/https://books.google.com/books?id=l3JtAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=freedman2000>{{Cite book |title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |last=Freedman |first=David Noel |publisher=[[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company]] |isbn=978-0-8028-2400-4 |date=2000 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/eerdmansdictiona0000unse/page/694 694–95] |quote=1. Ceramic evidence indicates some occupation of Ophel as early as early as the Chalcolithic period. 2. Remains of a building witness to a permanent settlement on Ophel during the early centuries (ca. 3000–2800 B.C.E.) of the Early Bronze Age |url=https://archive.org/details/eerdmansdictiona0000unse/page/694}}</ref> ===Bronze and Iron Ages=== {{Further|City of David (archaeological site)|History of ancient Israel and Judah}} [[File:City_of_David_-_The_Stepped_Stone_Stracture_IMG_5828.JPG|thumb|[[Stepped Stone Structure]] from the [[Bronze Age]] and [[Iron Age]] on the southeastern slope of old Jerusalem]] The earliest evidence of city fortifications appear in the [[Bronze Age#Near East|Mid to Late Bronze Age]] and could date to around the 18th century BCE.<ref>Nadav Naʼaman, ''Canaan in the 2nd Millennium B.C.E.'', p. 180.</ref> By around 1550–1200 BCE, Jerusalem was the capital of an Egyptian vassal city-state,<ref>Jane M. Cahill, 'Jerusalem at the time of the United Monarchy', in Andrew G. Vaughn, Ann E. Killebrew (eds.) ''Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period'', Society of Biblical Literature, 2003 p. 33.</ref> a modest settlement governing a few outlying villages and pastoral areas, with a small Egyptian garrison and ruled by appointees such as king [[Abdi-Heba]].<ref>[[Israel Finkelstein]], Neil Asher Silberman, ''The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts'', Simon and Schuster 2002 p. 239.</ref> At the time of [[Seti I]] (r. 1290–1279 BCE) and [[Ramesses II]] (r. 1279–1213 BCE), major construction took place as prosperity increased.<ref name=MurphyOConnor>Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, ''Keys to Jerusalem: Collected Essays'', Oxford University Press, 2012 pp. 5–6.</ref> The city's inhabitants at this time were Canaanites, who are believed by scholars to have evolved into the Israelites via the development of a distinct Yahweh-centric monotheistic belief system.<ref>Tubb, 1998. pp. 13–14</ref><ref>Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)</ref><ref name=Rendsberg3/> [[File:Shiloach.jpg|thumb|The [[Siloam Inscription]], written in [[Biblical Hebrew]], commemorates the construction of the [[Siloam tunnel]] (c. 700 BCE)]] Archaeological remains from the ancient [[Israelite]] period include the [[Siloam Tunnel]], an aqueduct built by [[Kingdom of Judah|Judahite]] king [[Hezekiah]] and once containing an ancient Hebrew inscription, known as the [[Siloam Inscription]];<ref>Robb Andrew Young, Hezekiah in History and Tradition, p. 49.</ref> the so-called [[Broad Wall (Jerusalem)|Broad Wall]], a defensive fortification built in the 8th century BCE, also by Hezekiah;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gojerusalem.com/discover/item_11470/The-Broad-Wall |title=The Broad Wall – Jerusalem Attractions, Israel |publisher=GoJerusalem.com |date=3 December 2012 |access-date=7 December 2012 |archive-date=10 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210034609/http://www.gojerusalem.com/discover/item_11470/The-Broad-Wall |url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Silwan necropolis]] (9th–7th c. BCE) with the [[Monolith of Silwan]] and the [[Silwan necropolis#Tomb of the Royal Steward|Tomb of the Royal Steward]], which were decorated with monumental [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] inscriptions;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/archaeology/projects/proj_past_silwan.html |title=Department of Archaeology – Silwan, Jerusalem: The Survey of the Iron Age Necropolis |publisher=TAU.ac.il |access-date=7 December 2012 |archive-date=29 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090529130818/http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/archaeology/projects/proj_past_silwan.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and the so-called [[Israelite Tower]], remnants of ancient fortifications, built from large, sturdy rocks with carved cornerstones.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewish-quarter.org.il/atar-migd.asp |title=The Israelite Tower |publisher=The Jewish Quarter |access-date=7 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005032727/http://www.jewish-quarter.org.il/atar-migd.asp |archive-date=5 October 2012}}</ref> A huge water reservoir dating from this period was discovered in 2012 near [[Robinson's Arch]], indicating the existence of a densely built-up quarter across the area west of the Temple Mount during the [[Kingdom of Judah]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/cistern-dated-to-first-temple-period-discovered-in-jerusalem/ |title=Cistern dated to First Temple period found in Jerusalem |author=Matti Friedman |newspaper=The Times of Israel |date=6 September 2012 |access-date=10 May 2016 |archive-date=10 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610034445/http://www.timesofisrael.com/cistern-dated-to-first-temple-period-discovered-in-jerusalem/ |url-status=live}}</ref> When the [[Assyria]]ns [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)#Destruction of the Kingdom, 732–720 BCE|conquered the Kingdom of Israel]] in 722 BCE, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom. When Hezekiah ruled, Jerusalem had no fewer than 25,000 inhabitants and covered 25 acres (10 hectares).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rocca |first=Samuel |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/368020822 |title=The fortifications of ancient Israel and Judah, 1200–586 BC |date=2010 |publisher=Osprey |others=Adam Hook |isbn=978-1-84603-508-1 |location=Oxford |pages=30 |oclc=368020822}}</ref> In 587–586 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered Jerusalem after a prolonged siege, and then systematically destroyed the city, including [[Solomon's Temple]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44509358 |title=The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |publisher=Free Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |location=New York |pages=307 |oclc=44509358 |quote=Intensive excavations throughout Jerusalem have shown that the city was indeed systematically destroyed by the Babylonians. The conflagration seems to have been general. When activity on the ridge of the City of David resumed in the Persian period, the-new suburbs on the western hill that had flourished since at least the time of Hezekiah were not reoccupied. |access-date=11 August 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034659/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44509358 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Kingdom of Judah was abolished and many were [[Babylonian captivity|exiled to Babylon]]. These events mark the end of the First Temple period.<ref name=BU22>{{cite web |url=http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period2-2-1.htm |publisher=Boston University |last=Zank |first=Michael |title=Capital of Judah I (930–722) |access-date=22 January 2007 |archive-date=28 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528051606/http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period2-2-1.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Biblical account ==== This period, when Canaan formed part of the Egyptian empire, corresponds in biblical accounts to [[Joshua]]'s invasion,<ref>K. L. Noll, ''Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction'', Continuum Publishing, 2002 p. 78.</ref> but almost all scholars agree that the Book of Joshua holds little historical value for early Israel.<ref>Ann Killebrew, ''Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E,'', Society of Biblical Literature, 2005, p. 152</ref> [[File:Solomons_Temple_10Century.JPG|thumb|Modern-day reconstruction of Jerusalem during the reign of [[Solomon]] (10th century BCE). [[Solomon's Temple]] appears on top.]] In the Bible, Jerusalem is defined as lying within territory allocated to the [[tribe of Benjamin]]<ref>{{bibleverse||Joshua|18:28|NIV}}</ref> though still inhabited by [[Jebusite]]s. [[David]] is said to have conquered these in the [[siege of Jebus]], and transferred his capital from [[Hebron]] to Jerusalem which then became the capital of a [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|United Kingdom of Israel]],<ref>Nadav Na'aman ''Canaan in the 2nd Millennium B.C.E.'', p. 183.</ref> and one of its several religious centres.<ref>Israel Finkelstein, Neil Asher Silberman, ''The Bible Unearthed'', p. 238.</ref> The choice was perhaps dictated by the fact that Jerusalem did not form part of Israel's tribal system, and was thus suited to serve as the centre of its confederation.<ref name="MurphyOConnor" /> Opinion is divided over whether the so-called [[Large Stone Structure]] and the nearby [[Stepped Stone Structure]] may be identified with King David's palace, or dates to a later period.<ref name="nytimes">{{Cite news |title=King David's Palace Is Found, Archaeologist Says |last=Erlanger |first=Steven |date=5 August 2005 |access-date=24 May 2007 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/05/international/middleeast/05jerusalem.html |work=The New York Times |archive-date=12 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112203013/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/05/international/middleeast/05jerusalem.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Finkelstein & Mazar (2007), pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=jpbngoKHg8gC&&pg=PA113 113, 125–28, 165, 174] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130084628/https://books.google.com/books?id=jpbngoKHg8gC&&pg=PA113 |date=30 November 2022 }}. Accessed 30 November 2022.</ref> According to the Bible, King David reigned for 40 years<ref>1 Samuel 31:1–13:2 Samuel 5:4–5; Finkelstein, Silberman, op.cit. p. 20.</ref> and was succeeded by his son [[Solomon]],<ref name="wwbible">{{Cite book |title=The Complete Book of When and Where: in the Bible and Throughout History |last=Michael |first=E. |author2=Sharon O. Rusten |author3=Philip Comfort |author4=Walter A. Elwell |publisher=Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. |isbn=978-0-8423-5508-7 |year=2005 |pages=20–21, 67}}</ref> who built the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Holy Temple]] on [[Moriah|Mount Moriah]]. Solomon's Temple (later known as the ''First Temple''), went on to play a pivotal role in Jewish religion as the repository of the [[Ark of the Covenant]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Merling, David |title=Where is the Ark of the Covenant? |publisher=Andrews University |date=26 August 1993 |url=http://www.andrews.edu/ARCHAEOLOGY/archive/merling/newpage3.htm |access-date=22 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060917132316/http://www.andrews.edu/ARCHAEOLOGY/archive/merling/newpage3.htm |archive-date=17 September 2006}}</ref> On Solomon's death, ten of the northern [[tribes of Israel]] broke with the United Monarchy to form their own nation, with its kings, prophets, priests, traditions relating to religion, capitals and temples in northern Israel. The southern tribes, together with the [[Kohen|Aaronid priesthood]], remained in Jerusalem, with the city becoming the capital of the [[Kingdom of Judah]].<ref>Richard A. Freund, {{Google books |id=3EWWup0o-o4C |page=9 |title= Digging Through the Bible: Modern Archaeology and the Ancient Bible}}, Rowman & Littlefield, 2009, p. 9.</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web |url=http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period2-2.htm |publisher=Boston University |title=Capital of Judah (930–586) |last=Zank |first=Michael |access-date=22 January 2007 |archive-date=15 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715082013/http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period2-2.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> ===Classical antiquity=== ==== Second Temple period ==== {{main|Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period|}} In 538 BCE, the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] [[List of kings of Persia|King]] [[Cyrus the Great]] invited the [[Babylonian captivity|Jews of Babylon]] to return to Judah to rebuild the Temple.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezra%201:1-4;%206:1-5&version=51; |title=Ezra 1:1–4; 6:1–5 |publisher=Biblegateway.com |access-date=11 September 2010 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083809/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezra%201:1-4;%206:1-5&version=NLT |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kuhrt |first=Amélie |date=1983 |title=The Cyrus Cylinder and Achaemenid Imperial Policy |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/030908928300802507?journalCode=jota |journal=Journal for the Study of the Old Testament |volume=8 |issue=25 |pages=83–97 |doi=10.1177/030908928300802507 |s2cid=170508879 |issn=0309-0892 |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-date=24 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124100957/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/030908928300802507?journalCode=jota |url-status=live}}</ref> Construction of the [[Second Temple of Jerusalem|Second Temple]] was completed in 516 BCE, during the reign of [[Darius I of Persia|Darius the Great]], 70 years after the destruction of the First Temple.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 Years of Roman-Judaean Relations |url=https://archive.org/details/betweenromejerus00sick |url-access=limited |last=Sicker |first=Martin |isbn=978-0-275-97140-3 |publisher=Praeger Publishers |date=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/betweenromejerus00sick/page/n14 2]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period2-3.htm |publisher=Boston University |title=Center of the Persian Satrapy of Judah (539–323) |last=Zank |first=Michael |access-date=22 January 2007 |archive-date=14 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414190206/http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period2-3.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Sometime soon after 485 BCE Jerusalem was besieged, conquered and largely destroyed by a coalition of neighbouring states.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Morgenstern |first=Julian |author-link=Julian Morgenstern |year=1938 |title=A Chapter in the History of the High-Priesthood (Concluded) |journal=The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |volume=55 (October 1938) |pages=360–77 |jstor=3088118 |quote=there is a great mass of evidence scattered throughout biblical literature that at some time very soon after the accession of Xerxes to the Persian throne in 485 B.C. Jerusalem was besieged and captured by a coalition of hostile neighboring states, Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, and Philistia. Its walls were torn down, its buildings razed, the Temple itself burned and destroyed, at least in part, and the great mass of the people scattered... |number=4 |doi=10.1086/amerjsemilanglit.55.4.3088118 |s2cid=147434998}}</ref> In about 445 BCE, King [[Artaxerxes I of Persia]] issued a decree allowing the city (including its walls) to be rebuilt.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Nehemiah%201:3;%202:1-8;&version=51; |title=Nehemiah 1:3; 2:1–8 |publisher=Biblegateway.com |access-date=11 September 2010 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083737/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Nehemiah%201:3;%202:1-8;&version=NLT |url-status=live}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=May 2017}} Jerusalem resumed its role as capital of Judah and centre of Jewish worship. [[File:Jerusalem Modell BW 2.JPG|thumb|[[Holyland Model of Jerusalem]], depicting the city during the late [[Second Temple period]]. First created in 1966, it is continuously updated according to advancing archaeological knowledge.]] Many Jewish tombs from the [[Second Temple period]] have been unearthed in Jerusalem. One example, discovered north of the [[Old City of Jerusalem|Old City]], contains human remains in a 1st-century CE [[ossuary]] decorated with the Aramaic inscription "Simon the Temple Builder".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/ossuary-bearing-an-aramaic-inscription-reading-simon-builder-of-the-temple-unknown/hQGSBSy2J5gGmQ |title=Ossuary bearing an Aramaic inscription reading, "Simon, builder of the Temple" – Unknown |website=Google Arts & Culture |access-date=3 March 2021 |archive-date=10 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210810204811/https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/ossuary-bearing-an-aramaic-inscription-reading-simon-builder-of-the-temple-unknown/hQGSBSy2J5gGmQ |url-status=live}}</ref> The Tomb of Abba, also located north of the Old City, bears an Aramaic inscription with [[Paleo-Hebrew]] letters reading: "I, Abba, son of the priest Eleaz(ar), son of Aaron the high (priest), Abba, the oppressed and the persecuted, who was born in Jerusalem, and went into exile into Babylonia and brought (back to Jerusalem) Mattathi(ah), son of Jud(ah), and buried him in a cave which I bought by deed."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Early%20History%20-%20Archaeology/Archaeological%20Sites%20in%20Israel%20-%20Jerusalem-%20Burial |title=Archaeological Sites in Israel-Jerusalem- Burial Sites and Tombs of the Second Temple Period |work=GxMSDev |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160731154454/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Early%20History%20-%20Archaeology/Archaeological%20Sites%20in%20Israel%20-%20Jerusalem-%20Burial |archive-date=31 July 2016}}</ref> The [[Tomb of Benei Hezir]] located in [[Kidron Valley]] is decorated by monumental [[Doric columns]] and Hebrew inscription, identifying it as the burial site of [[Second Temple]] priests. The [[Tombs of the Sanhedrin]], an underground complex of 63 rock-cut tombs, is located in a public park in the northern Jerusalem neighbourhood of [[Sanhedria]]. These tombs, probably reserved for members of the [[Sanhedrin]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Har-El |first=Menashe |title=Golden Jerusalem |publisher=Gefen Publishing House |location=Jerusalem |year=2004 |isbn=978-965-229-254-4 |url={{Google books |id=9Z2cFY9iGqgC |page=107 |plainurl=yes}} |access-date=18 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url={{Google books |id=7MK_spizMQwC |page=79 |plainurl=yes}} |title=Jerusalem, Part 1: 1–704 |editor1=Hannah M. Cotton |editor2=Leah Di Segni |editor3=Werner Eck |editor4=Benjamin Isaac |editor5=Alla Kushnir-Stein |editor6=Haggai Misgav |editor7=Jonathan Price |editor8=Israel Roll |editor9=Ada Yardeni |page=79 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2010 |access-date=18 September 2013}}</ref> and inscribed by ancient Hebrew and Aramaic writings, are dated to between 100 BCE and 100 CE. When [[Alexander the Great]] conquered the [[Achaemenid Empire]], Jerusalem and [[Judea]] came under Macedonian control, eventually falling to the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] under [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy I]]. In 198 BCE, [[Ptolemy V Epiphanes]] lost Jerusalem and Judea to the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]] under [[Antiochus III the Great|Antiochus III]]. The [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] attempt to recast Jerusalem as a [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenized]] [[polis|city-state]] came to a head in 168 BCE with the successful [[Maccabees|Maccabean revolt]] of [[Mattathias]] and his five sons against [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]], and their establishment of the [[Hasmonean]] Kingdom in 152 BCE with Jerusalem as its capital. [[File:Half Shekel.jpg|right|thumb|[[First Jewish Revolt coinage|A coin issued by the Jewish rebels]] in 68 CE. [[Obverse]]: "[[Shekel]], Israel. Year 3". [[Obverse and reverse|Reverse]]: "Jerusalem the Holy", in the [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet]]]] [[File:Roberts Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|''The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans'' (David Roberts, 1850)]] In 63 BCE, [[Pompey the Great]] intervened in a struggle for the Hasmonean throne and captured Jerusalem, extending the influence of the [[Roman Republic]] over Judea.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schiffman |first=Lawrence H. |title=From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism |publisher=Ktav Publishing House |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-88125-371-9 |pages=60–79}}</ref> Following a short invasion by [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]], backing the rival Hasmonean rulers, Judea became a scene of struggle between pro-Roman and pro-Parthian forces, eventually leading to the emergence of an [[Edom]]ite named Herod. As [[Roman Empire|Rome]] became stronger, it installed [[Herod the Great|Herod]] as a [[Vassal state|client king]] of the Jews. Herod the Great, as he was known, devoted himself to developing and beautifying the city. He built walls, towers and palaces, and [[Herod's Temple|expanded the Temple Mount]], buttressing the courtyard with blocks of stone weighing up to 100 tons. Under Herod, the area of the Temple Mount doubled in size.<ref name="wwbible" /><ref name="HarEl68">{{Cite book |last=Har-El |first=Menashe |title=This Is Jerusalem |publisher=Canaan Publishing House |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thisisjerusalem0000hare/page/68 68–95] |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-86628-002-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Michael_Zank/Jerusalem/templemount.html |title=The Temple Mount |last=Zank |first=Michael |publisher=Boston University |access-date=22 January 2007 |archive-date=21 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021200443/http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Michael_Zank/Jerusalem/templemount.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Shortly after Herod's death, in 6 CE Judea came under direct Roman rule as the [[Iudaea Province]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Historical Jesus: the life of a Mediterranean Jewish peasant |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaljesusl00cros |url-access=limited |last=Crossan |first=John Dominic |author-link=John Dominic Crossan |isbn=978-0-06-061629-8 |publisher=HarperCollins |location=San Francisco |date=26 February 1993 |edition=Reprinted |page=[https://archive.org/details/historicaljesusl00cros/page/92 92] |quote=from 4 BCE until 6 CE, when Rome, after exiling [[Herod Archelaus]] to Gaul, assumed direct prefectural control of his territories}}</ref> although the Herodian dynasty through [[Agrippa II]] remained client kings of neighbouring territories until 96 CE. Roman rule over Jerusalem and Judea was challenged in the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] (66–73 CE), which ended with a Roman victory. Early on, the city was devastated by a [[Zealot Temple Siege|brutal civil war]] between several Jewish factions fighting for control of the city. In 70 CE, the Romans [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destroyed Jerusalem and the Second Temple]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Weksler-Bdolah |first=Shlomit |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1170143447 |title=Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman period: in light of archaeological research |date=16 December 2019 |isbn=978-90-04-41707-6 |pages=3 |publisher=BRILL |oclc=1170143447 |quote=Following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, a new era began in the city's history. The Herodian city was destroyed and a military camp of the Tenth Roman Legion established on part of the ruins. In around 130 CE, the Roman emperor Hadrian founded a new city in place of Herodian Jerusalem next to the military camp. He honored the city with the status of a colony and named it Aelia Capitolina. |access-date=18 May 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326024152/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1170143447 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1016414322 |title=Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilizations |date=2008 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-029127-8 |pages=25 |oclc=1016414322 |quote=The capitulation of the rest of Jerusalem was rapid. Those parts of the lower city already under Roman control were deliberately set on fire. The erection of new towers to break down the walls of the upper city was completed on 7 Elul (in mid-August), and the troops forced their way in. By 8 Elul the whole city was in Roman hands—and in ruins. In recompense for the ferocious fighting they had been required to endure, the soldiers were given free rein to loot and kill, until eventually Titus ordered that the city be razed to the ground, "leaving only the loftiest of the towers, Phasael, Hippicus and Mariamme, and the portion of the wall enclosing the city on the west: the latter as an encampment for the garrison that was to remain, and the towers to indicate to posterity the nature of the city and of the strong defences which had yet yielded to Roman prowess. All the rest of the wall encompassing the city was so completely levelled to the ground as to leave future visitors to the spot no ground for believing that it had ever been inhabited."}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Ben-Ami |first1=Doron |last2=Tchekhanovets |first2=Yana |date=2011 |title=The Lower City of Jerusalem on the Eve of Its Destruction, 70 CE: A View From Hanyon Givati |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5615/bullamerschoorie.364.0061 |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |volume=364 |pages=61–85 |doi=10.5615/bullamerschoorie.364.0061 |s2cid=164199980 |issn=0003-097X |access-date=18 May 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326055131/https://dx.doi.org/10.5615/bullamerschoorie.364.0061 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=R. |first=Jones, Kenneth |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/787865898 |title=Jewish reactions to the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 : Apocalypses and related Pseudepigrapha |date=2011 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-21027-1 |oclc=787865898 |quote=Scholarly attention has focused primarily on the texts of Josephus to recapture Jewish opinion in the years after the failure and suppression of the first revolt which ended, excepting the reduction of a few fortresses, with the burning of the temple and razing of Jerusalem. |access-date=18 May 2022 |archive-date=27 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327021328/https://search.worldcat.org/title/787865898 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Zissu |first=Boaz |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/988856967 |title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE |date=2018 |others=Joshua Schwartz, Peter J. Tomson |isbn=978-90-04-34986-5 |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |pages=19 |chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective |oclc=988856967 |access-date=18 March 2022 |archive-date=21 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521160814/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/988856967 |url-status=live}}</ref> The contemporary Jewish historian [[Josephus]] wrote that the city "was so thoroughly razed to the ground by those that demolished it to its foundations, that nothing was left that could ever persuade visitors that it had once been a place of habitation."<ref>Josephus, Jewish War, 7:1:1</ref> Of the 600,000 (Tacitus) or 1,000,000 (Josephus) Jews of Jerusalem, all of them either died of starvation, were killed or were sold into slavery.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sebag Montefiore |first1=Simon |title=Jerusalem : The Biography |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-307-28050-3 |edition=First Vintage books |location=New York |page=11}}</ref> Roman rule was again challenged during the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], beginning in 132 CE and suppressed by the Romans in 135 CE. More recent research indicates that the Romans had founded Aelia Capitolina before the outbreak of the revolt, and found no evidence for Bar Kokhba ever managing to hold the city.<ref name="EncJud">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Bar Kokhba |page=162 |editor-last1=Berenbaum |editor-first1=Michael |editor-last2=Skolnik |editor-first2=Fred |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Judaica |publisher=Thomson Gale |series=Quoting from [[Shimon Gibson|Gibson, Shimon]]. ''Encyclopaedia Hebraica'' (2 ed.) |volume=3 |edition=2 |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-02-865931-2}}</ref> Jerusalem reached a peak in size and population at the end of the Second Temple Period, when the city covered {{cvt|2|km2|sqmi|spell=in|abbr=off|frac=4}} and had a population of 200,000.<ref name="ERPplaces" /><ref name="HarEl68" /> ==== Late Antiquity ==== {{main|Aelia Capitolina||l2 = }} Following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Emperor [[Hadrian]] combined [[Iudaea Province]] with neighbouring provinces under the new name of ''[[Syria Palaestina]]'', replacing the name of Judea.<ref>Elizabeth Speller, {{Google books |id=3c8kB3m0r8kC |page=218 |title=Following Hadrian: A Second-Century Journey Through the Roman Empire}}, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 218</ref> The city was renamed [[Aelia Capitolina]],<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/people&p.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080310053409/http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/people%26p.htm |archive-date=10 March 2008 |title=Palestine: People and Places |access-date=18 April 2007 |last=Lehmann |first=Clayton Miles |encyclopedia=The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces |publisher=The University of South Dakota |url-status=dead}}</ref> and rebuilt it in the style of a typical Roman town. Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death, except for one day each year, during the holiday of [[Tisha B'Av]]. Taken together, these measures,<ref name="Schäfer2003">{{cite book |author=Peter Schäfer |title=The Bar Kokhba war reconsidered: new perspectives on the second Jewish revolt against Rome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1TA-Fg4wBnUC&pg=PA36 |access-date=4 December 2011 |year=2003 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |isbn=978-3-16-148076-8 |pages=36– |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083810/https://books.google.com/books?id=1TA-Fg4wBnUC&pg=PA36 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=ERPplaces>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080310053428/http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm |archive-date=10 March 2008 |title=Palestine: History |access-date=18 April 2007 |date=22 February 2007 |last=Lehmann |first=Clayton Miles |encyclopedia=The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces |publisher=The University of South Dakota}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Shaye J. D. |chapter=Judaism to Mishnah: 135–220 C.E |title=Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism: A Parallel History of their Origins and Early Development |editor=Hershel Shanks |year=1996 |location=Washington, DC |page=196 |publisher=Biblical Archaeology Society}}</ref> which also affected Jewish Christians,<ref>Emily Jane Hunt, {{Google books |id=Dn5ERgK0djMC |page=7 |title=Christianity in the second century: the case of Tatian}}, Psychology Press, 2003, p. 7</ref> essentially "secularized" the city.<ref>E. Mary Smallwood {{Google books |id=nw0VAAAAIAAJ |page=460 |title=The Jews under Roman rule: from Pompey to Diocletian : a study in political relations}} Brill, 1981, p. 460.</ref> Historical sources and archaeological evidence indicate that the rebuilt city was now inhabited by veterans of the Roman military and immigrants from the western parts of the empire.<ref>Klein, E. (2010), "The Origins of the Rural Settlers in Judean Mountains and Foothills during the Late Roman Period", In: E. Baruch., A. Levy-Reifer and A. Faust (eds.), New Studies on Jerusalem, Vol. 16. Ramat-Gan, p. 325-327 (Hebrew). "Following the failure of the revolt, the process of the Roman administration's takeover of the city's lands and its surroundings was completed [...] The historical sources confirm that Hadrian gave the city the status of a colony of the citizens of Rome, a title that was awarded almost exclusively to cities where veterans and their families lived. [...] The totality of the data allows us to conclude that a significant component of the population of Ilia Capitolina is the veterans of the Roman army and settlers from the west of the empire."</ref> The ban against Jews was maintained until the 7th century,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period3-2.htm |last=Zank |first=Michael |publisher=Boston University |title=Byzantian Jerusalem |access-date=1 February 2007 |archive-date=4 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104004345/http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period3-2.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> though Christians would soon be granted an exemption: during the 4th century, the [[Roman emperor]] [[Constantine I]] ordered the construction of Christian holy sites in the city, including the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]. Burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians.<ref>Gideon Avni, {{Google books |id=ZLucAgAAQBAJ |page=144 |title=The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach}}, Oxford University Press 2014 p. 144.</ref> [[File:Madaba map.jpg|thumb|right|The Byzantine [[Madaba Map]] showing the city, dating to the 5th century AD, it is the oldest surviving [[Cartography of Jerusalem|depiction of Jerusalem]].]] In the 5th century, the eastern continuation of the [[Roman Empire]], ruled from the recently renamed [[Constantinople]], maintained control of the city. Within the span of a few decades, Jerusalem shifted from Byzantine to [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] rule, then back to Roman-Byzantine dominion. Following [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]] [[Khosrau II]]'s early 7th century push through Syria, his generals [[Shahrbaraz]] and [[Shahin Vahmanzadegan|Shahin]] attacked Jerusalem ({{lang-fa|Dej Houdkh}}) aided by the Jews of [[Palaestina Prima]], who had risen up against the Byzantines.<ref name=Strategos>{{Cite book |last=Conybeare |first=Frederick C. |author-link=Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare |title=The Capture of Jerusalem by the Persians in 614 AD |series=English Historical Review 25 |year=1910 |pages=502–17}}</ref> In the [[Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem|Siege of Jerusalem of 614]], after 21 days of relentless [[siege|siege warfare]], Jerusalem was captured. Byzantine chronicles relate that the Sassanids and Jews slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians in the city, many at the [[Mamilla Pool]],<ref>[http://tourism.gov.il/Tourism_Euk/Articles/Attractions/Hidden+Treasures+in+Jerusalem.htm Hidden Treasures in Jerusalem] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106095244/http://tourism.gov.il/Tourism_Euk/Articles/Attractions/Hidden+Treasures+in+Jerusalem.htm |date=6 January 2017 }}, the Jerusalem Tourism Authority</ref><ref>Jerusalem blessed, Jerusalem cursed: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in the Holy City from David's time to our own. By Thomas A. Idinopulos, I.R. Dee, 1991, p. 152</ref> and destroyed their monuments and churches, including the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]. This episode has been the subject of much debate between historians.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96507514 |last=Horowitz |first=Elliot |publisher=Jewish Social Studies |title=Modern Historians and the Persian Conquest of Jerusalem in 614 |access-date=20 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080526181012/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96507514 |archive-date=26 May 2008}}</ref> The conquered city would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine emperor [[Heraclius]] reconquered it in 629.<ref>Rodney Aist, ''The Christian Topography of Early Islamic Jerusalem'', Brepols Publishers, 2009 p. 56: 'Persian control of Jerusalem lasted from 614 to 629'.</ref> ===Middle Ages=== {{main|Medieval Jerusalem}} ====Early Muslim period==== {{main|History of Jerusalem during the Early Muslim period|History of Jerusalem during the Middle Ages|l2 = the Middle Ages}} [[File:Jerusalem-2013(2)-Temple Mount-Dome of the Rock (SE exposure).jpg|thumb|The [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] [[Dome of the Rock]] mosque, commissioned in late 7th century AD. It is designated as a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]], and called "Jerusalem's most recognizable landmark".<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2001/01/29/arafats-gift |title=Arafat's Gift |first=Jeffrey |last=Goldberg |author-link=Jeffrey Goldberg |date=29 January 2001 |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |access-date=11 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714192414/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2001/01/29/arafats-gift |archive-date=14 July 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>]] [[File:Umm ar-Rasas Church of St. Stephen Jerusalem 2785.jpg|thumb|A depiction of Jerusalem in the Byzantine [[Umm ar-Rasas mosaics]], identified as Hagia Polis in Greek, the Holy City, during the time of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] in 785.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CpfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA313 |title=New Rome: The Empire in the East |author=Paul Stephenson |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2022 |isbn=9780674659629 |access-date=26 October 2023 |archive-date=26 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026161042/https://books.google.com/books?id=1CpfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA313 |url-status=live}}</ref>]] After the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant]], Byzantine Jerusalem was taken by [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] in 638 CE.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Dan Bahat]] |title=The Illustrated Atlas of Jerusalem |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedatlas00baha |url-access=limited |page=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedatlas00baha/page/n61 71] |year=1996 |publisher=Carta |isbn=978-965-220-348-9}}</ref> Among the first [[Muslims]], it was referred to as ''Madinat bayt al-Maqdis'' ("City of the Temple"),<ref>Ben-Dov, M. ''Historical Atlas of Jerusalem''. Translated by David Louvish. New York: Continuum, 2002, p. 171</ref> a name restricted to the Temple Mount. The rest of the city "was called Iliya, reflecting the Roman name given the city following the destruction of 70 CE: ''Aelia Capitolina''".<ref>Linquist, J.M., ''The Temple of Jerusalem'', Praeger, London, 2008, p. 184</ref> Later the Temple Mount became known as ''al-Haram al-Sharif'', "The Noble Sanctuary", while the city around it became known as ''Bayt al-Maqdis'',<ref>Grabar, Oleg. The Shape of the Holy: Early Islamic Jerusalem. With Contributions by Mohammad al-Asad, Abeer Audeh, Said Nuseibeh. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 112</ref> and later still, ''al-Quds al-Sharif'' "The Holy, Noble". The [[Islamization]] of Jerusalem began in the first year [[Hijri year|A.H.]] (623 CE), when Muslims were instructed to face the city while performing their daily prostrations and, according to Muslim religious tradition, Muhammad's night journey and ascension to heaven took place. After 13 years, the direction of prayer was changed to Mecca.<ref>''In the Lands of the Prophet'', ''Time''-Life, p. 29</ref><ref name=Watt1974>{{cite book |author=William Montgomery Watt |title=Muhammad: prophet and statesman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zLN2hNidLw4C&pg=PA113 |access-date=29 December 2011 |date=7 February 1974 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-881078-0 |pages=112–13 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083735/https://books.google.com/books?id=zLN2hNidLw4C&pg=PA113 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 638 CE the Islamic [[Caliphate]] extended its dominion to Jerusalem.<ref name=Gilbert7>Gilbert (1978), p. 7.</ref> With the Muslim conquest, Jews were allowed back into the city.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A History of Palestine, 634–1099 |url=https://archive.org/details/historypalestine00gilm |url-access=limited |last=Gil |first=Moshe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=February 1997 |isbn=978-0-521-59984-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historypalestine00gilm/page/n96 70]–71}}</ref> The [[Rashidun]] caliph [[Umar|Umar ibn al-Khattab]] signed a treaty with Christian Patriarch of Jerusalem [[Sophronius of Jerusalem|Sophronius]], assuring him that Jerusalem's Christian holy places and population would be protected under Muslim rule.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A History of the Crusades:The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem |last=Runciman |first=Steven |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1951 |volume=1 |pages=3–4 |no-pp=true |isbn=978-0-521-34770-9}}</ref> Christian-Arab tradition records that, when led to pray at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, one of the holiest sites for Christians, the caliph Umar refused to pray in the church so that Muslims would not request conversion of the church to a mosque.<ref>[[Steven Runciman]], ''A History of the Crusades'', (3 vols. 1951–1954, Cambridge University Press), Penguin Books, 1965 vol. 1, pp. 3–4, citing [[Patriarch Eutychius of Alexandria|Eutychius]], [[Michael the Syrian]] and Elias of Nisibin. The many sources conserving the story are summarized in Hugues Vincent, [[Félix-Marie Abel|F. M. Abel]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=bCixXwAACAAJ Jérusalem Nouvelle] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327021319/https://books.google.com/books?id=bCixXwAACAAJ |date=27 March 2024 }}, 1914 tome 2, pp. 930–932,</ref> He prayed outside the church, where the [[Mosque of Omar (Jerusalem)|Mosque of Umar (Omar)]] stands to this day, opposite the entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. According to the Gaullic bishop [[Arculf]], who lived in Jerusalem from 679 to 688, the Mosque of Umar was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodate 3,000 worshipers.<ref name=YShalem>{{cite web |last=Shalem |first=Yisrael |title=The Early Arab Period – 638–1099 |publisher=Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies, [[Bar-Ilan University]] |url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_8.html |access-date=20 July 2008 |archive-date=16 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151216173527/http://www.biu.ac.il/JS/rennert/history_8.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> When the Arab armies under [[Umar]] went to ''Bayt Al-Maqdes'' in 637 CE, they searched for the site of [[Temple Mount|''al-masjid al-aqsa'']], "the farthest place of prayer/mosque", that was mentioned in the [[Quran]] and [[Hadith]] according to Islamic beliefs. Contemporary Arabic and Hebrew sources say the site was full of rubbish, and that Arabs and Jews cleaned it.<ref>Rivka Gonen, ''Contested holiness: Jewish, Muslim, and Christian perspectives on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem'', Ktav Publishing House, 2003, p. 85; ''The History of al-Tabari'', vol. XII, Albany: State University of New York Press 2007, pp. 194–95.</ref> The [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] caliph [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]] commissioned the construction of a shrine on the Temple Mount, now known as the Dome of the Rock, in the late 7th century.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament |last=Hoppe |first=Leslie J. |publisher=Michael Glazier Books |date=August 2000 |isbn=978-0-8146-5081-3 |page=15}}</ref> Two of the city's most-distinguished Arab citizens of the 10th-century were [[Al-Muqaddasi]], the geographer, and [[Al-Tamimi, the physician]]. Al-Muqaddasi writes that Abd al-Malik built the edifice on the Temple Mount in order to compete in grandeur with Jerusalem's monumental churches.<ref name=YShalem/> Over the next four hundred years, Jerusalem's prominence diminished as Arab powers in the region vied for control of the city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period4-3.htm |last=Zank |first=Michael |publisher=Boston University |title=Abbasid Period and Fatimid Rule (750–1099) |access-date=1 February 2007 |archive-date=10 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190910035229/http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period4-3.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Jerusalem was captured in 1073 by the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] Turkish commander [[Atsiz ibn Uvaq|Atsız]].<ref>[http://www.islamansiklopedisi.info/ Islam encyclopaedia] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226061225/http://www.islamansiklopedisi.info/ |date=26 December 2018 }} {{in lang|tr}} Vol. 26 pp. 323–27</ref> After Atsız was killed, the Seljuk prince [[Tutush I]] granted the city to [[Artuk Bey]], another Seljuk commander. After Artuk's death in 1091 his sons [[Sökmen of Artukids|Sökmen]] and [[Ilghazi]] governed in the city up to 1098 when the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]] recaptured the city. A messianic [[Karaite Judaism|Karaite]] movement to gather in Jerusalem took place at the turn of the millennium, leading to a "Golden Age" of Karaite scholarship there, which was only terminated by the Crusades.<ref>David E. Sklare, 'Yūsuf al-Bașīr: Theological Aspects of his Halakhic Works,' in Daniel Frank (ed.) ''The Jews of Medieval Islam: Community, Society & Identity'', E. J. Brill, 1995, pp. 249–270. p. 249. They were known as ''avelei șion'' (Mourners of Zion) or ''Shoshanim'' (Lilies(among the thorns))</ref> ====Crusader/Ayyubid period==== {{further|History of Jerusalem during the Kingdom of Jerusalem}} [[File:1099jerusalem.jpg|thumb|200 px|A medieval illustration of the capture of Jerusalem during the First Crusade, 1099.]] In 1099, the Fatimid ruler expelled the native Christian population before Jerusalem was [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|besieged]] by the soldiers of the [[First Crusade]]. After taking the solidly defended city by assault, the Crusaders massacred most of its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants, and made it the capital of their [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. The city, which had been virtually emptied, was recolonized by a variegated inflow of [[Greeks]], [[Bulgarians]], [[Hungarians]], [[Georgians]], [[Armenians]], [[Syrians]], [[Egyptians]], [[Nestorians]], [[Maronites]], [[Jacob Baradeus|Jacobite]] Miaphysites, [[Copts]] and others, to block the return of the surviving Muslims and Jews. The north-eastern quarter was repopulated with Eastern Christians from the Transjordan.<ref>Adrian J. Boas, ''Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades'', Routledge 2001, pp. 14, 35.</ref> As a result, by 1099 Jerusalem's population had climbed back to some 30,000.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hull |first=Michael D. |date=June 1999 |title=First Crusade: Siege of Jerusalem |journal=Military History |url=http://www.historynet.com/historical_conflicts/3028446.html?page=4&c=y |access-date=18 May 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930181302/http://www.historynet.com/historical_conflicts/3028446.html?page=4&c=y |archive-date=30 September 2007}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=October 2017}} In 1187, [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|the city was wrested]] from the Crusaders by [[Saladin]] who permitted Jews and Muslims to return and settle in the city.<ref name=century1>{{cite web |url=http://www.centuryone.com/hstjrslm.html |publisher=The CenturyOne Foundation |title=Main Events in the History of Jerusalem |access-date=2 February 2007 |year=2003 |work=Jerusalem: The Endless Crusade |archive-date=13 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113084400/http://www.centuryone.com/hstjrslm.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Under the terms of surrender, once ransomed, 60,000 Franks were expelled. The Eastern Christian populace was permitted to stay.<ref>Adrian J. Boas, ''Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades'', Routledge 2001, pp. 16, 19</ref> Under the [[Ayyubid dynasty]] of Saladin, a period of huge investment began in the construction of houses, markets, [[Hammam|public baths]], and pilgrim hostels as well as the establishment of religious endowments. However, for most of the 13th century, Jerusalem declined to the status of a village due to city's fall of strategic value and Ayyubid internecine struggles.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&pg=PA209 |first1=Janet L. |last1=Abu-Lughod |first2=Michael |last2=Dumper |year=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-919-5 |page=209 |access-date=22 July 2009 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083739/https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&pg=PA209 |url-status=live}}</ref> From 1229 to 1244, Jerusalem peacefully reverted to Christian control as a result of a 1229 treaty agreed between the crusading [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II]] and [[al-Kamil]], the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] [[sultan]] of [[Egypt in the Middle Ages|Egypt]], that ended the [[Sixth Crusade]].<ref name=Addington01a>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4CBEesvW2okC&pg=PA59 |title=The Patterns of War Through the Eighteenth Century |series=Midland book |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |author=Larry H. Addington |page=59 |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-253-20551-3 |access-date=30 May 2014 |quote=in the Sixth Crusade, Frederick II ...concluded a treaty with the Saracens in 1229 that placed Jerusalem under Christian control but allowed Muslim and Christian alike freedom of access to the religious shrines of the city. ... Within fifteen years of Frederick's departure from the Holy Land, the Khwarisimian Turks, successors to the Seljuks, rampaged through Syria and Palestine, capturing Jerusalem in 1244. (Jerusalem would not be ruled again by Christians until the British occupied it in December 1917, during World War I). |author-link=Larry H. Addington |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083740/https://books.google.com/books?id=4CBEesvW2okC&pg=PA59 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Pringle01a>{{cite book |last=Pringle |first=Denys |title=The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Corpus |volume=3, The City of Jerusalem |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=5 |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-39038-5 |quote=During the period of Christian control of Jerusalem between 1229 and 1244 ... |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X0jH6VPi4-gC&pg=PA5 |access-date=30 May 2014 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083740/https://books.google.com/books?id=X0jH6VPi4-gC&pg=PA5 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Wharton01a>{{cite book |author=[[Annabel Jane Wharton|Wharton, A.J.]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P1_BBK-LsesC&pg=PA106 |title=Selling Jerusalem: Relics, Replicas, Theme Parks |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |page=106 |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-226-89422-5 |access-date=30 May 2014 |quote=(footnote 19): It is perhaps worth noting that the same sultan, al-Malik al-Kamil, was later involved in the negotiations with Emperor Frederick II that briefly reestablished Latin control in Jerusalem between 1229 and 1244. |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083741/https://books.google.com/books?id=P1_BBK-LsesC&pg=PA106 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Askari01a>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U6REAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA52 |title=Conflicts in the Persian Gulf: Origins and Evolution |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |author=Hossein Askari |page=52 |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-137-35838-7 |access-date=30 May 2014 |quote=Later, during the years 1099 through 1187 AD and 1229 through 1244 AD, Christian Crusaders occupied Jerusalem ... |author-link=Hossein Askari |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083743/https://books.google.com/books?id=U6REAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA52 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Maoz01a>{{cite book |url={{Google books |id=o6YuXfFUwBgC |page=3 |plainurl=yes}} |title=The Meeting of Civilizations: Muslim, Christian, and Jewish |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |editor=Ma'oz, Moshe |editor-link=:de:Moshe Ma'oz |page=3 |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-84519-395-9 |access-date=30 May 2014 |quote=(Introduction by Moshe Ma'oz) ... When the Christian Crusaders occupied Jerusalem (AD 1099–1187, 1229–1244) ...}}{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The Ayyubids retained control of the Muslim holy places, and Arab sources suggest that Frederick was not permitted to restore Jerusalem's fortifications. In 1244, [[Siege of Jerusalem (1244)|Jerusalem was sacked]] by the [[Khwarazmian army between 1231 and 1246|Khwarezmian Tatars]], who decimated the city's Christian population and drove out the Jews.<ref name=Gilbert25>Gilbert (1978), p. 25.</ref> The Khwarezmian Tatars were driven out by the Ayyubids in 1247. ====Mamluk period==== From 1260<ref name="Bloom">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2009 |title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set |encyclopedia=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |access-date=30 May 2014 |editor1=[[Jonathan M. Bloom]] |volume=2 |page=348 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |chapter=Jerusalem |editor2=[[Sheila S. Blair]] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&q=%2290+buildings%22&pg=RA1-PA348 |archive-date=27 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327021353/https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&q=%2290+buildings%22&pg=RA1-PA348#v=snippet&q=%2290%20buildings%22&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> to 1516/17, Jerusalem was ruled by the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluks]]. In the wider region and until around 1300, many clashes occurred between the Mamluks on one side, and the crusaders and the [[Mongol raids into Palestine|Mongols]], on the other side. The area also suffered from many earthquakes and [[Black Death|black plague]].<ref>Michael Avi-Yonah, [https://books.google.com/books?id=AhasMr2F3i8C&pg=PA279 ''A History of Israel and the Holy Land''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327021320/https://books.google.com/books?id=AhasMr2F3i8C&pg=PA279#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=27 March 2024 }}, A&C Black, 2003 p. 279.</ref> When [[Nachmanides]] visited in 1267 he found only two Jewish families, in a population of 2,000, 300 of whom were Christians, in the city.<ref>Hunt Janin, [https://archive.org/details/fourpathstojerus0000jani/page/120 ''Four Paths to Jerusalem: Jewish, Christian, Muslim, and Secular Pilgrimages, 1000 BCE to 2001 CE''], McFarland, 2002 p. 120.</ref> The well-known and far-traveled [[Lexicography|lexicographer]] [[Fairuzabadi]] (1329–1414) spent ten years in Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/firuzabadi-s-al-qamus-al-muhit/SwFS5bJVWxyzgw |title=Firuzabadi's al-Qamus al-Muhit |website=Google Arts & Culture |access-date=7 October 2020 |archive-date=10 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210810204819/https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/firuzabadi-s-al-qamus-al-muhit/SwFS5bJVWxyzgw |url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Peregrinatio_in_terram_sanctam_Jerusalem_map_in_color.jpg|thumb|300px|Jerusalem, from 'Peregrinatio in Terram Sanctam' by [[Bernhard von Breidenbach|Bernhard von Breydenbach]], 1486]] The 13th to 15th centuries was a period of frequent building activity in the city, as evidenced by the 90 remaining structures from this time.<ref name="Bloom" /> The city was also a significant site of [[Mamluk architecture|Mamluk architectural]] patronage. The types of structures built included [[madrasa]]s, libraries, [[Bimaristan|hospitals]], [[caravanserai]]s, fountains (or [[Sebil (fountain)|sabils]]), and public baths.<ref name=Bloom/> Much of the building activity was concentrated around the edges of the Temple Mount or Haram al-Sharif.<ref name=Bloom/> Old gates to the Haram lost importance and new gates were built,<ref name=Bloom/> while significant parts of the northern and western porticoes along the edge of the Temple Mount plaza were built or rebuilt in this period.<ref name=Burgoyne>{{Cite book |last=Burgoyne |first=Michael Hamilton |title=Mamluk Jerusalem: An Architectural Study |publisher=For the [[British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem]]; the World of Islam Festival Trust |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-905035-33-8}}</ref> [[Tankiz]], the Mamluk [[Emir|amir]] in charge of [[Syria (region)|Syria]] during the reign of [[al-Nasir Muhammad]], built a new market called ''Suq al-Qattatin'' (Cotton Market) in 1336–7, along with the gate known as ''Bab al-Qattanin'' (Cotton Gate), which gave access to the Temple Mount from this market.<ref name=Bloom/><ref name=Burgoyne/> The late Mamluk sultan [[Qaitbay|al-Ashraf Qaytbay]] also took interest in the city. He commissioned the building of the [[Madrasa Al-Ashrafiyya|Madrasa al-Ashrafiyya]], completed in 1482, and the nearby [[Fountain of Qayt Bay|Sabil of Qaytbay]], built shortly after in 1482; both were located on the Temple Mount.<ref name=Bloom/><ref name=Burgoyne/> Qaytbay's monuments were the last major Mamluk constructions in the city.<ref name=Burgoyne/>{{Rp|589–612}} ===Modern era=== ====Ottoman period (16th–19th centuries)==== {{further|Expansion of Jerusalem in the 19th century}} In 1517, Jerusalem and its environs fell to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]], who generally remained in control until 1917.<ref name=century1/> Jerusalem enjoyed a prosperous period of renewal and peace under [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]—including the rebuilding of magnificent walls around the [[Old City of Jerusalem|Old City]]. Throughout much of Ottoman rule, Jerusalem remained a provincial, if religiously important centre, and did not straddle the main trade route between [[Damascus]] and [[Cairo]].<ref>Amnon Cohen. "Economic Life in Ottoman Jerusalem"; Cambridge University Press, 1989</ref> The English reference book ''Modern history or the present state of all nations'', written in 1744, stated that "Jerusalem is still reckoned the capital city of Palestine, though much fallen from its ancient grandeaur".<ref>{{cite book |title=Modern history or the present state of all nations |last=Salmon |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Salmon (historian) |page=461 |year=1744 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f7I-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA534 |access-date=28 January 2011 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083742/https://books.google.com/books?id=f7I-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA534 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:1283 Descriptio Terrae Sanctae.jpg|thumb|upright|A 1455 painting of the Holy Land. Jerusalem is viewed from the west. The octagonal [[Dome of the Rock]] stands left of the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]], shown as a church, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre stands on the left side of the picture.]] The Ottomans brought many innovations: modern postal systems run by the various consulates and regular stagecoach and carriage services were among the first signs of modernization in the city.<ref name=hujiOttoman>{{cite web |url=http://jeru.huji.ac.il/eh1.htm |title=The Ottoman Period (1517–1917 CE) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231040026/http://jeru.huji.ac.il/eh1.htm |archive-date=31 December 2009 |publisher=[[Hebrew University]] |year=2002 |access-date=24 July 2018}}</ref> In the mid 19th century, the Ottomans constructed the first paved road from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and by 1892 the railroad had reached the city.<ref name=hujiOttoman/> With the annexation of Jerusalem by Egyptian forces<ref>Jerusalem: The Biography by Simon Sebag Montefiore, Part 8; "The Albanian Conquest": ''The Albanians crushed the rebels and retook Jerusalem; the Husseinis of Jerusalem were exiled to Egypt''</ref> under [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] in 1831, foreign missions and consulates began to establish a foothold in the city. In 1836, [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]], son of Muhammad Ali Pasha, allowed Jerusalem's Jewish residents to restore four major synagogues, among them the [[Hurva Synagogue|Hurva]].<ref name=Gilbert37>Gilbert (1978), p. 37.</ref> In the countrywide [[Peasants' Revolt of 1834 (Palestine)|Peasants' Revolt]], [[Qasim al-Ahmad]] led his forces from [[Nablus]] and attacked Jerusalem, aided by the [[Abu Ghosh]] clan, and entered the city on 31 May 1834. The Christians and Jews of Jerusalem were subjected to attacks. Ibrahim's Egyptian army routed Qasim's forces in Jerusalem the following month.<ref>1834 Palestinian Arab Revolt *Joel Beinin (2001) Workers and peasants in the modern Middle East Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-62903-4}}, p. 33 *Beshara, Doumani. (1995). ''[http://www.escholarship.org/editions/view?docId=ft896nb5pc&chunk.id=s1.1.6&toc.depth=1&toc.id=s1.1.6&brand=eschol;query=Qasim#1 Rediscovering Palestine: Egyptian rule, 1831–1840] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324143302/http://www.escholarship.org/editions/view?docId=ft896nb5pc&chunk.id=s1.1.6&toc.depth=1&toc.id=s1.1.6&brand=eschol;query=Qasim#1 |date=24 March 2020 }}'' University of California Press.</ref> Ottoman rule was reinstated in 1840. Many Egyptian Muslims remained in Jerusalem and Jews from [[Algiers]] and North Africa began to settle in the city in growing numbers.<ref name=Gilbert37/> In the 1840s and 1850s, the international powers began a tug-of-war in Palestine as they sought to extend their protection over the region's religious minorities, a struggle carried out mainly through consular representatives in Jerusalem.<ref>''Encyclopaedia Judaica'', Jerusalem, Keter, 1978, Volume 9, "State of Israel (Historical Survey)", pp. 304–06</ref> According to the Prussian consul, the population in 1845 was 16,410, with 7,120 Jews, 5,000 Muslims, 3,390 Christians, 800 Turkish soldiers and 100 Europeans.<ref name=Gilbert37/> The volume of Christian pilgrims increased under the Ottomans, doubling the city's population around Easter time.<ref name=Gilbert35>Gilbert (1978), p. 35.</ref>[[File:Jerusalem 1844 Aqsa.jpg|thumb|right|1844 [[daguerreotype]] by [[Joseph-Philibert Girault de Prangey]] (the earliest photograph of the city)]]In the 1860s, new neighbourhoods [[Expansion of Jerusalem in the 19th century|began to develop]] outside the Old City walls to house pilgrims and relieve the intense overcrowding and poor sanitation inside the city. The [[Russian Compound]] and [[Mishkenot Sha'ananim]] were founded in 1860,<ref>{{cite web |last=Eylon |first=Lili |title=Jerusalem: Architecture in the Late Ottoman Period |work=Focus on Israel |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |date=April 1999 |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/mfaarchive/1990_1999/1999/4/focus%20on%20israel-%20jerusalem%20-%20architecture%20in%20the%20l |access-date=20 April 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070415192039/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/4/Focus%20on%20Israel-%20Jerusalem%20-%20Architecture%20in%20the%20l |archive-date=15 April 2007}}</ref> followed by many others that included [[Mahane Israel]] (1868), [[Nahalat Shiv'a]] (1869), [[German Colony, Jerusalem|German Colony]] (1872), [[Beit David]] (1873), [[Mea Shearim]] (1874), [[Shimon HaTzadik|Shimon HaZadiq]] (1876), [[Beit Ya'akov, Jerusalem|Beit Ya'aqov]] (1877), [[Abu Tor]] (1880s), [[American Colony, Jerusalem|American-Swedish Colony]] (1882), [[Yemin Moshe]] (1891), and [[Mamilla]], [[Wadi al-Joz]] around the turn of the century. In 1867 an American Missionary reports an estimated population of Jerusalem of 'above' 15,000, with 4,000 to 5,000 Jews and 6,000 Muslims. Every year there were 5,000 to 6,000 Russian Christian Pilgrims.<ref>Ellen Clare Miller, ''Eastern Sketches – notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine''. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. p. 126: 'It is difficult to obtain a correct estimate of the number of inhabitants of Jerusalem...'</ref> In 1872 Jerusalem became the centre of a special administrative district, independent of the [[Syria Vilayet]] and under the direct authority of [[Istanbul]] called the [[Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem]].<ref>{{cite book |first=James P. |last=Jankowski |title=Rethinking Nationalism in the Arab Middle East |url={{Google books |id=f3axNF2GdCkC |plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1997 |page=174 |isbn=978-0-231-10695-5}}</ref> The great number of Christian orphans resulting from the [[1860 Mount Lebanon civil war|1860 civil war in Mount Lebanon and the Damascus massacre]] led in the same year to the opening of the [[Protestant Church in Germany#History|German Protestant]] Syrian Orphanage, better known as the [[Schneller Orphanage]] after its founder.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fruma Zachs |year=2019 |title=Children in war time: the first pupils of the Syrian (Schneller) orphanage in Jerusalem 1860–1863 |journal=[[Middle Eastern Studies]] |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=958–73 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2019.1616546 |s2cid=202281138 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00263206.2019.1616546 |access-date=21 September 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003061025/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00263206.2019.1616546 |url-status=live}}</ref> Until the 1880s there were no formal Jewish orphanages in Jerusalem, as families generally took care of each other. In 1881 the [[Diskin Orphanage]] was founded in Jerusalem with the arrival of Jewish children orphaned by a Russian [[pogrom]]. Other orphanages founded in Jerusalem at the beginning of the 20th century were [[Zion Blumenthal Orphanage]] (1900) and [[General Israel Orphan's Home for Girls]] (1902).<ref>{{cite book |url={{Google books |id=eLgOAAAAQAAJ |page=3 |plainurl=yes}} |title=Israelis in Institutions: Studies in child placement, practice, and policy |first=Eliezer David |last=Jaffe |year=1983 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-677-05960-0 |page=3}}</ref> ====Jewish immigration to Palestine==== During the reign of Sultan [[Bayezid II]] (1481–1512), the gates of Ottoman Turkey were opened to the [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled]] from [[Spain]], and in the days of Sultan [[Selim I]], they were allowed to enter the territories he conquered, including [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]].<ref name="Ben-Yosef">{{cite book |author-last=Ben-Yosef |author-first=Sefi |author-link=:he:ספי בן-יוסף |editor=Ben-Yosef, Sefi |contribution=A historical-settlement review |title=Israel Guide – Judaea (A useful encyclopedia for the knowledge of the country) |volume=9 |publisher=Keter Publishing House |location=Jerusalem |year=n.d. |page=50 |language=he |oclc=745203905}}</ref> Rabbi [[Moses Bassola]], who visited Palestine in 1521–1522, testified that, largely due to this immigration, the Jewish community in Jerusalem grew and the deportees from Spain became the majority of the Jewish population in Jerusalem (which at that time numbered about 300 families).<ref name="Ben-Yosef"/> <gallery widths="200" heights="170"> File:מגדל דוד-חן חנה נחום.jpg|[[Tower of David]] citadel and the Ottoman walls File:Ben Zakai.jpg|[[Four Sephardic Synagogues|Ben-Zakai]] synagogue, photo taken in 1893 File:Mishkenot Sha'ananim 1.jpg|Guesthouse in [[Mishkenot Sha'ananim]], the first Jewish neighborhood built outside the walls of the [[Old City of Jerusalem]] (1860), on a hill directly across from [[Mount Zion]] </gallery> ====British Mandate (1917–1948)==== {{main|British Mandate-era Jerusalem}} {{Further|Jerusalem Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine}} [[File:First Town Plan of Jerusalem, 1918, William McLean.jpg|thumb|[[William McLean (civil servant)|William McLean's]] 1918 plan was the first urban planning scheme for Jerusalem. It laid the foundations for what became [[West Jerusalem]] and East Jerusalem.<ref>Elisha Efrat and Allen G. Noble, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/215090 Planning Jerusalem] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106002923/https://www.jstor.org/stable/215090 |date=6 November 2021 }}, Geographical Review, Vol. 78, No. 4 (Oct. 1988), pp. 387–404: "Modern planning began only after the British conquest of Palestine in World War I… In 1918 an engineer from Alexandria, William McLean, was commissioned to draft the first city plan… These provisions… caused the city to develop mainly to the west and southwest because of the restrictions on construction in the Old City and its immediate environs and the desire to retain the eastern skyline… McLean wanted Jerusalem to expand to the north, west, and south, with little development to the east because of climatic and topographical limitations. Thus almost from the onset of British colonial rule, development was encouraged in a generally westward direction, and this bias ultimately produced the initial contrasts that distinguished the eastern and western sectors of the city. McLean also adopted the principle of urban dispersal, and he proposed two main axes, one to the northwest and the other to the southwest of the Old City. His guidelines were repeated in most of the subsequent city plans."</ref>]] [[File:VE day Jerusalem 1945.jpg|thumb|Jerusalem on [[Victory in Europe Day|VE Day]], 8 May 1945]] In 1917 after the [[Battle of Jerusalem (1917)|Battle of Jerusalem]], the [[British Army]], led by [[Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|General Edmund Allenby]], captured the city.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fromkin |first=David |author-link=David Fromkin |publisher=Owl Books e |edition=2nd reprinted |isbn=978-0-8050-6884-9 |date=1 September 2001 |title=A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East |pages=[https://archive.org/details/peacetoendallpea00from/page/312 312–13] |title-link=A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East}}</ref> In 1922, the [[League of Nations]] at the [[Lausanne Conference of 1922–23|Conference of Lausanne]] entrusted the United Kingdom to [[Mandatory Palestine|administer]] [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], neighbouring [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]], and [[British Mandate of Mesopotamia|Iraq]] beyond it. From 1922 to 1948 the total population of the city rose from 52,000 to 165,000, comprising two-thirds Jews and one-third Arabs (Muslims and Christians).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://focusonjerusalem.com/jerusalempopchart.html |title=Chart of the population of Jerusalem |publisher=Focusonjerusalem.com |access-date=11 September 2010 |archive-date=11 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511164648/http://focusonjerusalem.com/jerusalempopchart.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Relations between Arab Christians and Muslims and the growing Jewish population in Jerusalem deteriorated, resulting in recurring unrest. In Jerusalem, in particular, [[1920 Palestine riots|Arab riots occurred in 1920]] and [[1929 Palestine riots|in 1929]]. Under the British, new garden suburbs were built in the western and northern parts of the city<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tamari |first=Salim |author-link=Salim Tamari |year=1999 |title=Jerusalem 1948: The Phantom City |journal=Jerusalem Quarterly File |issue=3 |format=Reprint |url=http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/tamjer.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909050148/http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/tamjer.htm |archive-date=9 September 2006 |access-date=2 February 2007}}</ref><ref name=BIUmandate>{{cite web |last=Eisenstadt |first=David |title=The British Mandate |work=Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City |publisher=Bar-Ilan University Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies |date=26 August 2002 |access-date=10 February 2007 |url=http://www.biu.ac.il/JS/rennert/history_12.html |archive-date=16 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151216173540/http://www.biu.ac.il/JS/rennert/history_12.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> and institutions of higher learning such as the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem|Hebrew University]] were founded.<ref name=hujiHistory>{{cite web |title=History |publisher=The Hebrew University of Jerusalem |url=http://www.huji.ac.il/huji/eng/aboutHU_history_e.htm |access-date=18 March 2007 |archive-date=5 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205121934/http://www.huji.ac.il/huji/eng/aboutHU_history_e.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> ===Contemporary era=== ====Divided city: Jordanian and Israeli rule (1948–1967)==== {{Further|Battle for Jerusalem|City Line (Jerusalem)}} {{See also|Corpus separatum (Jerusalem)|United Nations General Assembly Resolution 194|Jordanian annexation of the West Bank}} {{JerusalemCS}} As the British Mandate for Palestine was expiring, the [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|1947 UN Partition Plan]] recommended "the creation of a special international regime in the City of Jerusalem, constituting it as a ''[[corpus separatum (Jerusalem)|corpus separatum]]'' under the administration of the UN."<ref>{{cite web |title=Considerations Affecting Certain of the Provisions of the General Assembly Resolution on the 'Future Government of Palestine': The City of Jerusalem |publisher=The United Nations |date=22 January 1948 |access-date=3 February 2007 |url=http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/52b7d0e66142a40e85256dc70072b982/6362111f689724d705256601007063f2!OpenDocument |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080126145437/http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/52b7d0e66142a40e85256dc70072b982/6362111f689724d705256601007063f2%21OpenDocument |archive-date=26 January 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The international regime (which also included the city of [[Bethlehem]]) was to remain in force for a period of ten years, whereupon a referendum was to be held in which the residents were to decide the future regime of their city.<ref>{{cite web |title=U.N. Resolution 181 (II). (29 Nov 1947) Future government of Palestine |url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/7F0AF2BD897689B785256C330061D253 |access-date=6 September 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906162506/http://unispal.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/7F0AF2BD897689B785256C330061D253 |archive-date=6 September 2015}}</ref> However, this plan was not implemented, as the [[1948 Arab–Israeli war|1948 war erupted]], while the British withdrew from Palestine and [[Declaration of Independence (Israel)|Israel declared its independence]].<ref name=lapidoth/> In contradiction to the Partition Plan, which envisioned a [[Corpus separatum (Jerusalem)|city]] separated from the Arab state and the Jewish state, Israel took control of the area which later would become West Jerusalem, along with [[1948 Arab–Israeli War#1949 Armistice Agreements|major parts of the Arab territory allotted to the future Arab State]]; Jordan took control of East Jerusalem, along with the West Bank. The war led to displacement of Arab and Jewish populations in the city. The 1,500 residents of the [[Jewish Quarter (Jerusalem)|Jewish Quarter]] of the Old City were expelled and a few hundred taken prisoner when the Arab Legion captured the quarter on 28 May.<ref>Benny Morris, ''1948'' (2008), pp. 218–19.</ref><ref>Mordechai Weingarten</ref> Arab residents of [[Katamon]], [[Talbiya]], and the [[German Colony, Jerusalem|German Colony]] were driven from their homes. By the time of the armistice that ended active fighting, Israel had control of 12 of Jerusalem's 15 Arab residential quarters. An estimated minimum of 30,000 people had become refugees.<ref>Cattan, Henry (1981). ''Jerusalem''. Croom Helm. {{ISBN|978-0-7099-0412-0}}. p. 51. Number of Arab districts under Jewish control.</ref><ref>Asali, K. J. (1989) ''Jerusalem in History''. Scorpion Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-905906-70-6}}. p. 259. Estimate of number of refugees (Michael C. Hudson).</ref> The war of 1948 resulted in the division of Jerusalem, so that the [[Old City of Jerusalem|old walled city]] lay entirely on the Jordanian side of the [[Green Line (Israel)|line]]. A no-man's land between East and West Jerusalem came into being in November 1948: [[Moshe Dayan]], commander of the Israeli forces in Jerusalem, met with his Jordanian counterpart [[Abdullah el-Tell]] in a deserted house in Jerusalem's [[Musrara, Jerusalem|Musrara]] neighbourhood and marked out their respective positions: Israel's position in red and Jordan's in green. This rough map, which was not meant as an official one, became the final [[Green Line (Israel)|line]] in the [[1949 Armistice Agreements]], which divided the city and left [[Mount Scopus]] as an Israeli [[Enclave and exclave|exclave]] inside East Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jposttravel.com/jerusalem_tours/FormerIsrael1008.html |title=No Man's Land |publisher=Jposttravel.com |access-date=11 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124081714/http://jposttravel.com/jerusalem_tours/FormerIsrael1008.html |archive-date=24 November 2010}}</ref> Barbed wire and concrete barriers ran down the centre of the city, passing close by [[Jaffa Gate]] on the western side of the [[Old City of Jerusalem|old walled city]]. A crossing point was established at [[Mandelbaum Gate]] slightly to the north of the [[Old City of Jerusalem|old walled city]]. Military skirmishes frequently threatened the ceasefire. After the establishment of the state of Israel, Jerusalem was declared its capital city.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Breger |editor1-first=Marshall J. |editor2-last=Ahimeir |editor2-first=Ora |last=Klein |first=Menachem |title=Jerusalem: A City and Its Future |year=2002 |publisher=[[Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies]], [[Syracuse University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8156-2912-2 |chapter-url={{Google books |id=FGOY5oDGGLUC |page=145 |plainurl=Yes}} |access-date=14 October 2012 |page=[https://archive.org/details/jerusalemcityits00berg/page/145 145] |chapter=Chapter 5: Rule and Role in Jerusalem |quote=On 5 December 1948, Prime Minister Ben-Gurion claimed Jerusalem as part of Israel and eight days later the Israeli Knesset declared it the capital of Israel. |url=https://archive.org/details/jerusalemcityits00berg/page/145}}</ref> Jordan formally annexed East Jerusalem in 1950, subjecting it to Jordanian law, and in 1953 declared it the "second capital" of Jordan.<ref name=lapidoth>{{cite web |last=Lapidoth |first=Ruth |title=Jerusalem: Legal and Political Background |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |date=30 June 1998 |access-date=22 July 2008 |url=http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/mfa/peace%20process/guide%20to%20the%20peace%20process/jerusalem-%20legal%20and%20political%20background |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402044938/http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/mfa/peace%2Bprocess/guide%2Bto%2Bthe%2Bpeace%2Bprocess/jerusalem-%2Blegal%2Band%2Bpolitical%2Bbackground |archive-date=2 April 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=birzeit>{{cite web |title=Legal Status in Palestine |publisher=Birzeit University Institute of Law |access-date=22 July 2008 |url=http://lawcenter.birzeit.edu/iol/en/index.php?action_id=210 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071103074653/http://lawcenter.birzeit.edu/iol/en/index.php?action_id=210 |archive-date=3 November 2007}}</ref><ref>Michael Dumper, ''The Politics of Jerusalem Since 1967'', Columbia University Press, 1997: ''Israeli West Jerusalem was made the capital of the State of Israel'' (p. 21); "in 1953 the Hashemites granted East Jerusalem the status of ''amana'' (trusteeship) and made it the 'second capital' of Jordan." (p. 33)</ref> Only the United Kingdom and [[Pakistan]] formally recognized such annexation, which, in regard to Jerusalem, was on a ''de facto'' basis.<ref>Announcement in the UK House of Commons of the recognition of the State of Israel and also of the annexation of the West Bank by the State of Jordan. Commons Debates (Hansard) 5th series, Vol. 474, pp. 1137–41. 27 April 1950. [[:File:UKrecognizesIsraelJordan.pdf|scan (PDF)]]</ref> Some scholars argue that the view that Pakistan recognized Jordan's annexation is dubious.<ref>S. R. Silverburg, Pakistan and the West Bank: A research note, ''Middle Eastern Studies'', 19:2 (1983) 261–63.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=P. R. Kumaraswamy |date=March 2000 |url=http://www.tau.ac.il/jcss/memoranda/memo55.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070628142556/http://www.tau.ac.il/jcss/memoranda/memo55.pdf |archive-date=28 June 2007 |title=Beyond the Veil: Israel-Pakistan Relations |website=Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies |publisher=Tel Aviv University |location=Tel Aviv, Israel |access-date=22 July 2009}}</ref> After 1948, since the [[Old City of Jerusalem|old walled city]] in its entirety was to the east of the armistice line, [[Jordan]] was able to take control of all the holy places therein. While Muslim holy sites were maintained and renovated,<ref name=Reiter>{{cite book |author=Yitzhak Reiter |title=Jerusalem and its role in Islamic solidarity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=20rYAAAAMAAJ |access-date=24 May 2011 |year=2008 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-60782-8 |page=136 |quote=According to Jordanian government sources, Jordan has spent about a billion dollars since 1954 on al-Aqsa renovations and maintenance. |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083742/https://books.google.com/books?id=20rYAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> contrary to the terms of the armistice agreement, Jews were denied access to Jewish holy sites, many of which were destroyed or desecrated. Jordan allowed only very limited access to Christian holy sites,<ref>Martin Gilbert, [https://web.archive.org/web/20060512233546/http://www.mefacts.com/cache/html/wall-ruling_/11362.htm "Jerusalem: A Tale of One City"], ''The New Republic'', 14 November 1994</ref> and restrictions were imposed on the [[Palestinian Christians|Christian population]] that led many to leave the city. Of the 58 synagogues in the Old City, half were either razed or converted to stables and hen-houses over the course of the next 19 years, including the [[Hurva]] and the [[Tiferet Yisrael Synagogue]]. The 3,000-year-old<ref name=cem>{{cite web |url=http://www.mountofolives.co.il/eng/panorama.aspx?index=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100212044946/http://www.mountofolives.co.il/eng/panorama.aspx?index=4 |archive-date=12 February 2010 |title=Mount of Olives, Jerusalem |work=mountofolives.co.il}}</ref> [[Mount of Olives Jewish Cemetery]] was desecrated, with gravestones used to build roads, latrines and Jordanian army fortifications. 38,000 graves in the Jewish Cemetery were destroyed, and Jews were forbidden from being buried there.<ref>Oren, M. ''Six Days of War'', {{ISBN|978-0-345-46192-6}}, p. 307</ref><ref name=Tessler>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofisraeli00tess_0 |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofisraeli00tess_0/page/329 329] |quote=ancient jewish cemetery. |title=A History of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict |publisher=Indiana University Press |author=Mark A. Tessler |access-date=17 May 2015 |isbn=978-0-253-20873-6 |year=1994}}</ref> The Western Wall was transformed into an exclusively Muslim holy site associated with ''[[al-Buraq]]''.<ref name=Ricca>{{cite book |author=Simone Ricca |title=Reinventing Jerusalem: Israel's reconstruction of the Jewish Quarter after 1967 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cbd1ALFq9hAC&pg=PA14 |access-date=3 June 2011 |year=2007 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=978-1-84511-387-2 |page=22 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083742/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cbd1ALFq9hAC&pg=PA14 |url-status=live}}</ref> Israeli authorities neglected to protect the tombs in the Muslim [[Mamilla Cemetery]] in West Jerusalem, which contains the remains of figures from the early Islamic period,<ref>Alisa Rubin Peled, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Qz5KkSVZaicC&pg=PA91 ''Debating Islam in the Jewish State: The Development of Policy Toward Islamic''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327021401/https://books.google.com/books?id=Qz5KkSVZaicC&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=27 March 2024 }}, SUNY Press, 2012 p. 91</ref> facilitating the creation of a parking lot and public lavatories in 1964.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Institute for Palestine Studies and Kuwait University |journal=Journal of Palestine Studies |volume=7 |issue=25–28 |page=194 |url={{Google books |id=A7tVAAAAYAAJ |plainurl=yes}} |last1=Al-Kuwayt |first1=Jāmiʻat |publisher=Institute For Palestine Studies |location=Washington, DC |last2=Al-Filasṭīnīyah |first2=Muʼassasat al-Dirāsāt |year=1978}}</ref> Many other historic and religiously significant buildings were demolished and replaced by modern structures during the Jordanian occupation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/A8138AD15B0FCAC385256B920059DEBF |title=Letter From The Permanent Representative of Israel to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General |publisher=United Nations |access-date=11 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515203330/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/A8138AD15B0FCAC385256B920059DEBF |archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> During this period, the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque underwent major renovations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/0994/9409011.htm |title=Dispute Over Jerusalem Holy Places Disrupts Arab Camp |author=Greg Noakes |publisher=[[Washington Report on Middle East Affairs]] |date=September–October 1994 |access-date=20 July 2008 |archive-date=6 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706033924/http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/0994/9409011.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> During the 1948 war, the Jewish residents of Eastern Jerusalem [[Jewish refugees|were expelled]] by Jordan's [[Arab Legion]]. Jordan allowed Arab Palestinian refugees from the war to settle in the vacated [[Jewish Quarter (Jerusalem)|Jewish Quarter]], which became known as ''Harat al-Sharaf''.<ref name=Oest>{{cite book |editor1=Oesterreicher, John M. |editor-link=John M. Oesterreicher |editor2=Sinai, Anne |title=Jerusalem |year=1974 |publisher=John Day |isbn=978-0-381-98266-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/jerusalem00oest/page/26 26] |url=https://archive.org/details/jerusalem00oest |url-access=registration}}</ref> In 1966 the Jordanian authorities relocated 500 of them to the [[Shuafat|Shua'fat refugee camp]] as part of plans to turn the Jewish quarter into a [[public park]].<ref>Doson, Nandita and Sabbah, Abdul Wahad, eds. (2010). ''Stories from our Mothers''. {{ISBN|978-0-9556136-3-0}}. pp. 18–19.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Shepherd |first=Naomi |title=Teddy Kollek, Mayor of Jerusalem |year=1988 |publisher=Harper & Row Publishers |location=[[New York City]] |isbn=978-0-06-039084-6 |chapter=The View from the Citadel |page=[https://archive.org/details/teddykollekmayor00shep/page/20 20] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/teddykollekmayor00shep/page/20}}</ref> <gallery widths="200" heights="170"> File:Mandelbaum Gate Jerusalem.jpg|Israeli policemen meet a [[Arab Legion|Jordanian Legionnaire]] near the [[Mandelbaum Gate]] ({{Circa|1950}}) File:King Hussein flying over Temple Mount when it was under Jordanian control.jpg|[[Hussein of Jordan|King Hussein]] of [[Jordan]] flying over the [[Temple Mount]] in East Jerusalem when it was under Jordanian control, 1965 </gallery> ====Israeli rule (1967–present)==== {{main|Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem}} [[File:EastJerusalemMap-en.svg|thumb|A map of [[East Jerusalem]], 2010] In 1967, the [[Six-Day War]] erupted between Israel and its Arab neighbors. Jordan joined Egypt and attacked Israeli-held West Jerusalem on the war's second day. After hand-to-hand fighting between Israeli and Jordanian soldiers on the Temple Mount, the [[Israel Defense Forces]] occupied East Jerusalem, along with the entire West Bank. On 27 June 1967, three weeks after the war ended, in what Israel terms the [[reunification of Jerusalem]], Israel extended its law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem, including the city's Christian and Muslim holy sites, along with some nearby West Bank territory which comprised 28 Palestinian villages, incorporating it into the Jerusalem Municipality,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.jpost.com/magazine/for-jerusalem-455837 |title=For Jerusalem |website=The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com |date=11 June 2016 |access-date=10 August 2021 |archive-date=10 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210810204809/https://www.jpost.com/magazine/for-jerusalem-455837 |url-status=live}}</ref> although it carefully avoided using the term "annexation". On 10 July, Foreign Minister Abba Eban explained to the UN Secretary General: "The term 'annexation' which was used by supporters of the vote is not accurate. The steps that were taken [by Israel] relate to the integration of Jerusalem in administrative and municipal areas, and served as a legal basis for the protection of the holy places of Jerusalem."<ref>{{Google books |id=DA4-XPy-6hIC |page=53 |title=Jerusalem Syndrome – The Palestinian–Israeli Battle for the Holy City}}, pp. 53–54. Mosheh ʻAmirav, Sussex University Press, 2009</ref> Israel conducted a census of Arab residents in the areas annexed. Residents were given permanent residency status and the option of applying for Israeli citizenship. Since 1967, new Jewish residential areas have mushroomed in the eastern sector, while no new Palestinian neighbourhoods have been created.<ref name=Thrall >[[Nathan Thrall]], [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v36/n23/nathan-thrall/rage-in-jerusalem 'Rage in Jerusalem,'] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906092249/http://www.lrb.co.uk/v36/n23/nathan-thrall/rage-in-jerusalem |date=6 September 2015 }} [[London Review of Books]] Vol. 36 No. 23 4 December 2014, pp. 19–21.</ref> Jewish and Christian access to the holy sites inside the [[Old City of Jerusalem|old walled city]] was restored. Israel left the Temple Mount under the jurisdiction of an Islamic ''[[waqf]]'', but opened the Western Wall to Jewish access. The [[Moroccan Quarter]], which was located adjacent to the Western Wall, was evacuated and razed<ref>Rashid Khalidi, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/195696 "The Future of Arab Jerusalem"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402180644/http://www.jstor.org/stable/195696 |date=2 April 2017 }} ''British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies'', Vol. 19, No. 2 (1992), pp. 133–143</ref> to make way for a plaza for those visiting the wall.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC04.php?CID=6 |publisher=The Washington Institute for Near East Policy |access-date=20 July 2008 |year=1988 |title=Jerusalem's Holy Places and the Peace Process |archive-date=5 October 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061005003142/http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC04.php?CID=6 |url-status=dead}}</ref> On 18 April 1968, an expropriation order by the Israeli Ministry of Finance more than doubled the size of the Jewish Quarter, evicting its Arab residents and seizing over 700 buildings of which 105 belonged to Jewish inhabitants prior to the Jordanian occupation of the city.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} The order designated these areas for public use, but they were intended for Jews alone.<ref>Michael Dumper, ''The Politics of Sacred Space: The Old City of Jerusalem in the Middle East Conflict'', Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002 pp. 42–43</ref> The government offered 200 [[Jordanian dinar]]s to each displaced Arab family. After the Six-Day War the population of Jerusalem increased by 196%. The Jewish population grew by 155%, while the Arab population grew by 314%. The proportion of the Jewish population fell from 74% in 1967 to 72% in 1980, to 68% in 2000, and to 64% in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Yelinek |first1=Aviel |last2=Chosen |first2=Maya |last3=Korach |first3=Michal |last4=Assaf-Shapira |first4=Yair |title=Jerusalem – Facts and Trends 2012 |url=https://jerusaleminstitute.org.il/en/publications/jerusalem-facts-and-trends-2012/ |website=Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research |access-date=24 November 2019 |archive-date=13 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113075146/https://jerusaleminstitute.org.il/en/publications/jerusalem-facts-and-trends-2012/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Israeli Agriculture Minister [[Ariel Sharon]] proposed building a ring of Jewish neighbourhoods around the city's eastern edges. The plan was intended to [[Judaization of Jerusalem|make East Jerusalem more Jewish]] and prevent it from becoming part of an urban Palestinian bloc stretching from [[Bethlehem]] to [[Ramallah]]. On 2 October 1977, the [[Cabinet of Israel|Israeli cabinet]] approved the plan, and seven neighbourhoods were subsequently built on the city's eastern edges. They became known as the [[Ring Neighborhoods, Jerusalem|Ring Neighbourhoods]]. Other Jewish neighbourhoods were built within East Jerusalem, and Israeli Jews also settled in Arab neighbourhoods.<ref>Sharon, Gilad: ''Sharon: The Life of a Leader'' (2011)</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Bowen |first=Jeremy |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-10656890 |title=House-by-house struggle for East Jerusalem |publisher=BBC |access-date=11 September 2010 |date=15 July 2010 |archive-date=5 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405160817/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-10656890 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - Peres and Mubarak.jpg|thumb|[[Shimon Peres]], [[Hosni Mubarak]] and [[King Hussein]] at funeral of [[Yitzhak Rabin]] in Jerusalem, 1995]] In 1993, the [[Oslo I Accord]] was signed between [[Yitzhak Rabin]] and [[Yasser Arafat]]. The agreement led to the establishment of the Palestinian Authority. The Jerusalem Governorate was notified by this authority.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Israel Demolishes 70 Homes in Palestinian-controlled East Jerusalem Neighborhood |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2019-07-22/ty-article/.premium/israel-begins-demolition-of-homes-in-palestinian-controlled-east-jlem-neighborhood/0000017f-f335-dc28-a17f-ff37e9a80000 |access-date=27 February 2024 |work=Haaretz |language=en |archive-date=11 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240311073725/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2019-07-22/ty-article/.premium/israel-begins-demolition-of-homes-in-palestinian-controlled-east-jlem-neighborhood/0000017f-f335-dc28-a17f-ff37e9a80000 |url-status=live }}</ref> Only parts of few neighborhoods were allotted to the Palestinian Authority and this peace talks didn't solve the overall problem of Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cook |first=Jonathan |date=28 July 2019 |title=Sur Baher home demolitions illustrate a vicious spiral of oppression in Palestine |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/comment/sur-baher-home-demolitions-illustrate-a-vicious-spiral-of-oppression-in-palestine-1.891684 |access-date=27 February 2024 |website=The National |language=en |archive-date=27 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227161352/https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/comment/sur-baher-home-demolitions-illustrate-a-vicious-spiral-of-oppression-in-palestine-1.891684 |url-status=live }}</ref> The annexation of East Jerusalem was met with international criticism. The [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Israel)|Israeli Foreign Ministry]] disputes that the annexation of Jerusalem was a violation of international law.<ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/foreignpolicy/peace/guide/pages/jerusalem-%20legal%20and%20political%20background.aspx/ Jerusalem – Legal and Political Background] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725033710/http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/foreignpolicy/peace/guide/pages/jerusalem-%20legal%20and%20political%20background.aspx/ |date=25 July 2018 }} – Professor [[Ruth Lapidoth]]. Israeli Foreign Ministry website, 30 June 1998</ref><ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/mfa-archive/1999/pages/the%20status%20of%20jerusalem.aspx/ The Status of Jerusalem] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180228113607/http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/mfa-archive/1999/pages/the%20status%20of%20jerusalem.aspx |date=28 February 2018 }} – Israeli Foreign Ministry website, 14 March 1999</ref> The final status of Jerusalem has been one of the most important areas of discord between Palestinian and Israeli negotiators for peace. Areas of discord have included whether the Palestinian flag can be raised over areas of Palestinian custodianship and the specificity of Israeli and Palestinian territorial borders.<ref name=Abbas-090900>{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/172D1A3302DC903B85256E37005BD90F |title=Abu Mazen's speechat the meeting of the PLO's Palestinian Central Council |date=9 September 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026110339/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/172D1A3302DC903B85256E37005BD90F |archive-date=26 October 2011 |access-date=25 July 2018 |work=[[UNISPAL]]}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). 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