Jaffa

===Ottoman period===
====16th-18th centuries====
In 1515, Jaffa was conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Ottoman dynasty|sultan]] [[Selim I]].<ref name="HüttAbdul">Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 151</ref>

In the [[Defter|census]] of 1596, it appeared located in the ''[[nahiya]]'' of ''[[Ramla]]'' in the ''[[Liwa (Arabic)|liwa]]'' of [[Gaza Sanjak|Gaza]]. It had a population of 15 households, all [[Muslim]]. They paid a fixed tax rate of 33,3 % on various products; a total of 7,520 [[akçe]].<ref name="HüttAbdul"/>

The traveller [[Jean Cotwyk]] (Cotovicus) described Jaffa as a heap of ruins when he visited in 1598.<ref>{{cite book |title= Jewish Encyclopedia |chapter= Jaffa |author= Gotthard Deutsch and M. Franco |year= 1903 |chapter-url= http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8497-jaffa }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Joannes Cotovicus |title= Itinerarium Hierosolymitanum et Syriacum |publisher= apud Hieronymum Verdussium |year= 1619 |page= 135 |url = https://archive.org/details/A091230 |place= Antwerp}}</ref> Botanist and traveller [[Leonhard Rauwolf]] landed near the site of the town on 13 September 1575 and wrote "we landed on the high, rocky shore where the town of Joppe did stand formerly, at this time the town was so demolished that there was not one house to be found." (p.&nbsp;212, Rauwolf, 1582)

The 17th century saw the beginning of the re-establishment of churches and hostels for Christian pilgrims en route to Jerusalem and the Galilee. During the 18th century, the coastline around Jaffa was often besieged by pirates and this led to the inhabitants relocating to [[Ramla]] and [[Lod]], where they relied on messages from a solitary guard house to inform them when ships were approaching the harbour. The landing of goods and passengers was notoriously difficult and dangerous. Until well into the 20th century, ships had to rely on teams of oarsmen to bring their cargo ashore.<ref>Thomson, 1859, vol 2, p. [https://archive.org/stream/landandbookorbi08thomgoog#page/n287/mode/1up 275]</ref>

====Napoleon (1799)====
[[File:Antoine-Jean Gros - Bonaparte visitant les pestiférés de Jaffa.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa]], 1804 [[propaganda]] painting commissioned by Napoleon; completed by [[Baron Gros]], who had not visited Jaffa]]

On 7 March 1799, [[Napoleon]] captured the town in what became known as the [[Siege of Jaffa]], ransacked it, and killed scores of local inhabitants as a reaction to his envoys being brutally killed when delivering an ultimatum of surrender. Napoleon ordered the massacre of thousands of Muslim soldiers who were imprisoned having surrendered to the French.<ref name="Moit">{{cite book |author=Jacques-François Miot |title=Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des expéditions en Égypte et en Syrie |year=1814}}, quoted in {{cite journal |author=Véronique Nahoum-Grappe |year=2002 |title=The anthropology of extreme violence: the crime of desecration |journal=International Social Science Journal |volume=54 |issue=174 |pages=549–557 |doi=10.1111/1468-2451.00409}}</ref> Napoleon's deputy commissioner of war Jacques-François Miot described it thus:
{{blockquote|On 10 March 1799 in the afternoon, the prisoners of Jaffa were marched off in the midst of a vast square phalanx formed by the troops of General Bon... The Turks, walking along in total disorder, had already guessed their fate and appeared not even to shed any tears... When they finally arrived in the sand dunes to the south-west of Jaffa, they were ordered to halt beside a pool of yellowish water. The officer commanding the troops then divided the mass of prisoners into small groups, who were led off to several different points and shot... Finally, of all the prisoners there only remained those who were beside the pool of water. Our soldiers had used up their cartridges, so there was nothing to be done but to dispatch them with bayonets and knives. ... The result ... was a terrible pyramid of dead and dying bodies dripping blood and the bodies of those already dead had to be pulled away so as to finish off those unfortunate beings who, concealed under this awful and terrible wall of bodies, had not yet been struck down.<ref name=Moit/>}}
Many more died in an epidemic of [[bubonic plague]] that broke out soon afterwards.<ref>''Jaffa: a City in Evolution'' Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 8–9</ref>

====19th century====
[[File:1840–42 Royal Engineers map of Jaffa.jpg|thumb|left|Jaffa in 1841, as [[1840–41 Royal Engineers maps of Palestine, Lebanon and Syria|mapped by the British Royal Engineers]] after the [[Oriental Crisis of 1840]]]]
{{multiple image
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| image1            = Félix Bonfils (French) - Jaffa, Vue Générale Prise de la Mer - Palestine - Google Art Project.jpg
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| caption1          = View of the port by [[Félix Bonfils]], 1867–1870
| image3            = ChederInJaffa1 (before1899).jpg
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| caption2          = Jewish preschool ([[Cheder]]) of studies in Yiddish and Hebrew, Jaffa, c. 1890s
}}

Residential life in the city was reestablished in the early 19th century.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}} The governor who was appointed after the devastation brought about by Napoleon, [[Muhammad Abu-Nabbut]], commenced wide-ranging building and restoration work in Jaffa, including the [[Mahmoudiya Mosque]] and the public fountain known as [[Sabil Abu Nabbut]]. During the 1834 [[Peasants' revolt in Palestine]], Jaffa was besieged for forty days by "mountaineers" in revolt against [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt]].<ref>Thomson, page 515.</ref>
[[File:Jaffa, or Joppa.jpg|thumb|1877 illustration of "Jaffa, or Joppa"]]

In 1820, Isaiah Ajiman of Istanbul built a synagogue and hostel for the accommodation of Jews on their way to their [[Four Holy Cities|four holy cities]] - Jerusalem, [[Hebron]], [[Tiberias]] and [[Safed]]. This area became known as Dar al-Yehud (Arabic for "the house of the Jews"); and was the basis of the Jewish community in Jaffa. The appointment of Mahmud Aja as Ottoman governor marked the beginning of a period of stability and growth for the city, interrupted by the 1832 conquest of the city by [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]].{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

By 1839, at least 153 [[Sephardic Jews]] were living in Jaffa.<ref>{{citation |title= The digitalization project of the 19th century censuses in Eretz Israel done under the auspices of Sir Moses Montefiore |access-date= 31 May 2011 |url= https://www.scribd.com/doc/44144106/Digitalization-Project-of-Montefiore-Censuses-19th-century}}</ref> The community was served for fifty years by Rabbi Yehuda HaLevi [[Dubrovnik|miRagusa]]. In the early 1850s, HaLevi leased an orchard to [[Clorinda S. Minor]], founder of a Christian messianic community that established Mount Hope, a farming initiative to encourage local Jews to learn manual trades, which the [[Messianics]] did in order to pave wave for the [[Second Coming]] of Jesus. In 1855, the British Jewish philanthropist [[Moses Montefiore]] bought the orchard from HaLevi, although Minor continued to manage it.<ref>{{cite web|last=Friedman |first=Lior |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/the-mountain-of-despair-1.273560 |title=The mountain of despair |publisher=Haaretz.com |date=5 April 2009 |access-date=25 August 2013}}</ref>
[[File:MarktJaffaGustavBauernfeind1887.jpg|thumb|''Market at Jaffa'', by [[Gustav Bauernfeind]], 1877]]

American missionary Ellen Clare Miller, visiting Jaffa in 1867, reported that the town had a population of "about 5000, 1000 of these being Christians, 800 Jews and the rest Moslems".<ref>Ellen Clare Miller, 'Eastern Sketches&nbsp;— notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine'. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. Page 97. See also Miller's populations of [[Damascus]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Bethlehem]], [[Nablus]] and [[Samaria]]</ref><ref>Thompson (above) writing in 1856 has '25 years ago the inhabitants of the city and gardens were about 6000; now there must be 15,000 at least...' Considering the length of time he lived in the area this may be a more accurate count.</ref>

The city walls were torn down during the 1870s, allowing the city to expand.<ref>[https://www.oldjaffa.co.il/en/jaffa-historical-survey Jaffa, an Historical Survey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626111354/https://www.oldjaffa.co.il/en/jaffa-historical-survey/ |date=26 June 2018 }}. Written with the assistance of Tzvi Shacham, the curator of the Antiquities Museum of Tel Aviv–Jaffa</ref>

====1900-1914====
[[File:Landing at Jaffa.jpg|thumb|Boatmen waiting to land passengers, c. 1911]]
[[File:רחוב הנמל ביפו-JNF007017.jpeg|thumb|Jaffa street beside port, 1914]]

By the beginning of the 20th century, the population of Jaffa had swelled considerably. A group of Jews left Jaffa for the sand dunes to the north, where in 1909 they held a lottery to divide the lots acquired earlier. The settlement was known at first as Ahuzat Bayit, but an assembly of its residents changed its name to [[Tel Aviv]] in 1910. Other Jewish suburbs to Jaffa had already been founded [[Neve Tzedek|since 1887]], with others following until [[the Great War]].{{cn|date=January 2024}}

In 1904, rabbi [[Abraham Isaac Kook]] (1864–1935) moved to Ottoman Palestine and took up the position of [[Chief Rabbi]] of Jaffa.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Rav_Kook.html |title= Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook |publisher= Jewish Virtual Library |author= Rav Hillel Rachmani}}</ref>

====Late Ottoman-period economy====
{{See also|History of Palestinian journalism}}
In the 19th century, Jaffa was best known for its soap industry. Modern industry emerged in the late 1880s.<ref name=JCE>''Jaffa: A City in Evolution'' Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 256–257.</ref> The most successful enterprises were metalworking factories, among them the machine shop run by the [[Templers (religious believers)|Templers]] that employed over 100 workers in 1910.<ref name=JCE/> Other factories produced orange-crates, barrels, corks, noodles, ice, seltzer, candy, soap, olive oil, leather, alkali, wine, cosmetics and ink.<ref name=JCE/> Most of the newspapers and books printed in Ottoman Palestine were [[History of Palestinian journalism|published in Jaffa]].

In 1859, a Jewish visitor, [[Ludwig August von Frankl|L.A. Frankl]], found sixty-five Jewish families living in Jaffa, 'about 400 soul in all.' Of these four were shoemakers, three tailors, one silversmith and one watchmaker. There were also merchants and shopkeepers and 'many live by manual labour, porters, sailors, messengers, etc.'<ref>Dr Frankl, translated by P. Beaton, 'The Jews in the East'. Volume 1. Hurst and Blackett, London, 1859. Page 345. He adds 'The community is poor, and receives no alms from any quarter.' which resulted in some envy of the 'our bethren' in Jerusalem.</ref>

====Late Ottoman agriculture; Jaffa oranges====
[[File:Oranges leaving Jaffa.jpg|thumb|Crates of Jaffa oranges being ferried to a waiting freighter for export, circa 1930]]
{{main|Jaffa orange}}

Until the mid-19th century, Jaffa's orange groves were mainly owned by Arabs, who employed traditional methods of farming. The pioneers of modern agriculture in Jaffa were American settlers, who brought in farm machinery in the 1850s and 1860s, followed by the Templers and the Jews.<ref>''Jaffa: A City in Evolution'' Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 244–246.</ref> From the 1880s, real estate became an important branch of the economy. A 'biarah' (a watered garden) cost 100,000 piastres and annually produced 15,000, of which the farming costs were 5,000: 'A very fair percentage return on the investment.' Water for the gardens was easily accessible with wells between ten and forty feet deep.<ref>Thompson, page 517.</ref><ref>''Jaffa: A City in Evolution'' Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, p.262.</ref>

Jaffa's citrus industry began to flourish in the last quarter of the 19th century. E.C. Miller records that 'about ten million' oranges were being exported annually, and that the town was surrounded by 'three or four hundred orange gardens, each containing upwards of one thousand trees'.<ref>Miller, page 97: 'The orange gardens are the finest in the East; and during the late winter and early spring, little white sailed vessels from Greece, Constantinople and the islands of the Archipelago, lie in calm weather at a short distance from the coast, waiting to carry away the fruit'.</ref> Shamuti or Shamouti oranges, aka "[[Jaffa oranges]]", were the major crop, but [[citron]]s, lemons and [[mandarin orange]]s were also grown.<ref>''Jaffa: A City in Evolution'' Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 242.</ref> Jaffa had a reputation for producing the best [[pomegranate]]s.<ref>Thomson p.517: Sidon has best bananas, Jaffa the best pomegranates, oranges of Sidon are more juicy and have richer flavour. Jaffa oranges hang on the trees much later, and will bear shipping to distant regions.'</ref>

Developed the mid-19th century, the Jaffa orange was first produced for export in the city after being developed by Arab farmers.<ref name=Issawip127 /><ref name=Basanp83 /> The orange was the primary citrus export for the city. Today,{{dubious|reason= Maybe elsewhere, but in Isr/Pal it stopped being a cash crop decades ago. |date= January 2024}} along with the [[navel orange|navel]] and [[bitter orange]], it is one of three main varieties of the fruit grown in the [[Mediterranean]], the [[Middle East]], and [[Southern Europe]].<ref name=Basanp83 /><ref name=Ladaniyap48>Ladaniya, 2008, [https://books.google.com/books?id=zaOK8bsvENQC&pg=PA48 pp. 48–49].</ref>

The Jaffa orange emerged as a mutation on a tree of the 'Baladi' variety of [[sweet orange]] (''C. sinensis'') near the city of Jaffa.<ref name=Issawip127 /><ref name=Basanp83>Basan, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-7wnpIi3VRwC&dq=%22jaffa+orange%22&pg=PA83 p. 83].</ref> After the [[Crimean War]] (1853–56), the most important innovation in local agriculture was the rapid expansion of citrus cultivation.<ref name=Kramerp91>Krämer, 2008, [https://archive.org/details/historyofpalesti00krea/page/91 <!-- quote="jaffa orange" history. --> p. 91].</ref> Foremost among the varieties cultivated was the Jaffa (Shamouti) orange, and mention of it being exported to Europe first appears in British consular reports in the 1850s.<ref name=Issawip127>Issawi, 2006, [https://books.google.com/books?id=t2UESIFL0tkC&dq=%22jaffa+orange%22+history&pg=PA127 p. 127].</ref><ref name=Kramerp91 /> One factor cited in the growth of the export market was the development of [[steamship]]s in the first half of the 19th century, which enabled the export of oranges to the European markets in days rather than weeks.<ref name=Gerber1982>Gerber, 1982.</ref> Another reason cited for the growth of the industry was the relative lack of European control over the cultivation of oranges compared to cotton, formerly a primary commodity crop of Palestine, but outpaced by the Jaffa orange.<ref name=LeVinep272>LeVine, 2005, p. 272.</ref>

The prosperity of the orange industry brought increased European interest and involvement in the development of ''Jaffa''. In 1902, a study of the growth of the orange industry by [[Zionist]] officials outlined the different Palestinian owners and their primary export markets as England, Turkey, Egypt and [[Austria-Hungary]]. While the traditional Arabic cultivation methods were considered "primitive," an in-depth study of the financial expenditure involved reveals that they were ultimately more cost-efficient than the Zionist-European enterprises that followed them some two decades later.<ref name=LeVinep34>LeVine, 2005, [https://books.google.com/books?id=pG8LmsJAUPcC&q=%22jaffa+orange%22 p. 34].</ref>

====First World War====
In 1917, the [[Tel Aviv and Jaffa deportation]] resulted in the Ottomans expelling the entire civilian population. While Muslim evacuees were allowed to return before long, the Jewish evacuees remained in camps (and some in Egypt) until after the British conquest.<ref>Friedman, Isaiah (1971). "German Intervention on Behalf of the "Yishuv"", 1917, ''Jewish Social Studies'', Vol. 33, pp. 23–43.</ref>

[[File:Jaffa Municipal Buildings.jpg|thumb|[[ANZAC|New Zealand]] soldiers outside Jaffa municipality building, WWI (winter 1917–18)]]

During the course of their [[Sinai and Palestine Campaign |campaign through Ottoman Palestine and the Sinai]] (1915-1918) against the Ottomans, the British took Jaffa in November 1917, although it remained under observation and fire from the Ottomans. The [[battle of Jaffa (1917)|battle of Jaffa]] in late December 1917 pushed back the Ottoman forces securing Jaffa and the line of communication between it and Jerusalem, which had already been [[Battle of Jerusalem |taken on 11 December]].
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