Hebrew language

===Revival===
{{Main|Revival of the Hebrew language}}
[[File:Eliezer Ben-Yehuda at his desk in Jerusalem - c1912.jpg|thumb|Eliezer Ben-Yehuda]]
Hebrew has been [[Language revitalization|revived]] several times as a literary language, most significantly by the [[Haskalah]] (Enlightenment) movement of early and mid-19th-century Germany. In the early 19th century, a form of spoken Hebrew had emerged in the markets of Jerusalem between Jews of different linguistic backgrounds to communicate for commercial purposes. This Hebrew dialect was to a certain extent a [[pidgin]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bensadoun |first=Daniel |date=15 Oct 2010 |title=This week in history: Revival of the Hebrew language – Jewish World – Jerusalem Post |url=http://www.jpost.com/Jewish-World/Jewish-News/This-week-in-history-Revival-of-the-Hebrew-language |access-date=6 April 2018 |archive-date=1 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401111442/https://www.jpost.com/Jewish-World/Jewish-News/This-week-in-history-Revival-of-the-Hebrew-language |url-status=live }}</ref> Near the end of that century the Jewish activist [[Eliezer Ben-Yehuda]], owing to the ideology of the [[Romantic nationalism|national revival]] ({{lang|he|שיבת ציון|italic=no}}, {{lang|he|Shivat Tziyon}}, later [[Zionism]]), began reviving Hebrew as a modern spoken language. Eventually, as a result of the local movement he created, but more significantly as a result of the new groups of immigrants known under the name of the [[Second Aliyah]], it replaced a score of languages spoken by Jews at that time. Those languages were Jewish dialects of local languages, including [[Judaeo-Spanish]] (also called "Judezmo" and "Ladino"), [[Yiddish]], [[Judeo-Arabic languages|Judeo-Arabic]] and [[Bukhori dialect|Bukhori]] (Tajiki), or local languages spoken in the [[Jewish diaspora]] such as [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]].

The major result of the literary work of the Hebrew intellectuals along the 19th century was a lexical modernization of Hebrew. New words and expressions were adapted as [[neologism]]s from the large corpus of Hebrew writings since the Hebrew Bible, or borrowed from Arabic (mainly by Ben-Yehuda) and older Aramaic and Latin. Many new words were either borrowed from or coined after European languages, especially English, Russian, German, and French. Modern Hebrew became an official language in British-ruled Palestine in 1921 (along with English and Arabic), and then in 1948 became an official language of the newly declared [[Israel|State of Israel]]. Hebrew is the most widely spoken language in Israel today.

In the Modern Period, from the 19th century onward, the literary Hebrew tradition revived as the spoken language of modern Israel, called variously ''Israeli Hebrew'', ''Modern Israeli Hebrew'', ''Modern Hebrew'', ''New Hebrew'', ''Israeli Standard Hebrew'', ''Standard Hebrew'' and so on. Israeli Hebrew exhibits some features of [[Sephardic Hebrew]] from its local Jerusalemite tradition but adapts it with numerous neologisms, borrowed terms (often technical) from European languages and adopted terms (often colloquial) from Arabic.

The literary and narrative use of Hebrew was revived beginning with the Haskalah movement. The first secular periodical in Hebrew, {{Lang|he-latn|[[Ha-Me'assef]]}} (The Gatherer), was published by [[maskil]]im in [[Königsberg]] (today's [[Kaliningrad]]) from 1783 onwards.<ref>Spiegel, Shalom. ''Hebrew Reborn'' (1930), Meridian Books reprint 1962, New York p. 56.</ref> In the mid-19th century, publications of several Eastern European Hebrew-language newspapers (e.g. {{Lang|he-latn|[[Hamagid]]}}, founded in [[Ełk]] in 1856) multiplied. Prominent poets were [[Hayim Nahman Bialik]] and [[Shaul Tchernichovsky]]; there were also novels written in the language.

The [[revival of the Hebrew language]] as a [[first language|mother tongue]] was initiated in the late 19th century by the efforts of Ben-Yehuda. He joined the [[Zionism|Jewish national movement]] and in 1881 immigrated to [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], then a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Motivated by the surrounding ideals of renovation and rejection of the diaspora "[[shtetl]]" lifestyle, Ben-Yehuda set out to develop tools for making the [[literary language|literary]] and [[sacred language|liturgical language]] into everyday [[spoken language]]. However, his brand of Hebrew followed norms that had been replaced in [[Eastern Europe]] by different grammar and style, in the writings of people like [[Ahad Ha'am]] and others. His organizational efforts and involvement with the establishment of schools and the writing of textbooks pushed the [[vernacular]]ization activity into a gradually accepted movement. It was not, however, until the 1904–1914 Second Aliyah that Hebrew had caught real momentum in Ottoman Palestine with the more highly organized enterprises set forth by the new group of immigrants. When the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate of Palestine]] recognized Hebrew as one of the country's three official languages (English, Arabic, and Hebrew, in 1922), its new formal status contributed to its diffusion. A constructed modern language with a truly Semitic vocabulary and written appearance, although often European in [[phonology]], was to take its place among the current languages of the nations.

While many saw his work as fanciful or even [[blasphemy|blasphemous]]<ref>[http://www.jewishmag.com/43mag/ben-yehuda/ben-yehuda.htm Eliezer Ben Yehuda and the Resurgence of the Hebrew Language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115054257/http://jewishmag.com/43mag/ben-yehuda/ben-yehuda.htm |date=15 January 2010 }} by Libby Kantorwitz</ref> (because Hebrew was the holy language of the Torah and therefore some thought that it should not be used to discuss everyday matters), many soon understood the need for a common language amongst Jews of the British Mandate who at the turn of the 20th century were arriving in large numbers from diverse countries and speaking different languages. A Committee of the Hebrew Language was established. After the establishment of Israel, it became the [[Academy of the Hebrew Language]]. The results of Ben-Yehuda's lexicographical work were published in a dictionary (''The Complete Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew'', [[Ben-Yehuda Dictionary]]). The seeds of Ben-Yehuda's work fell on fertile ground, and by the beginning of the 20th century, Hebrew was well on its way to becoming the main language of the Jewish population of both Ottoman and British Palestine. At the time, members of the [[Yishuv|Old Yishuv]] and a very few [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] sects, most notably those under the auspices of [[Satmar (Hasidic dynasty)|Satmar]], refused to speak Hebrew and spoke only Yiddish.

In the Soviet Union, the use of Hebrew, along with other Jewish cultural and religious activities, was suppressed. Soviet authorities considered the use of Hebrew "reactionary" since it was associated with Zionism, and the teaching of Hebrew at primary and secondary schools was officially banned by the [[People's Commissariat for Education]] as early as 1919, as part of an overall agenda aiming to [[secularization|secularize]] education (the language itself did not cease to be studied at universities for historical and linguistic purposes<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewish-heritage.org/prep26.htm |title=The Transformation of Jewish Culture in the USSR from 1930 to the Present (in Russian) |publisher=Jewish-heritage.org |access-date=25 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222024723/http://www.jewish-heritage.org/prep26.htm |archive-date=22 December 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>). The official ordinance stated that Yiddish, being the spoken language of the Russian Jews, should be treated as their only national language, while Hebrew was to be treated as a foreign language.<ref>{{cite web |author=Nosonovsky, Michael |title=ЕВРЕЙСКАЯ СОВЕТСКАЯ КУЛЬТУРА БЫЛА ПРИГОВОРЕНА К УНИЧТОЖЕНИЮ В 1930–Е ГОДЫ |trans-title=Jewish Soviet Culture Was Sentenced to Destruction in the 1930s |lang=ru |publisher=Berkovich-zametki.com |date=25 August 1997 |url=http://berkovich-zametki.com/Nomer16/MN31.htm |access-date=25 April 2013 |archive-date=7 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707225500/http://berkovich-zametki.com/Nomer16/MN31.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Hebrew books and periodicals ceased to be published and were seized from the libraries, although liturgical texts were still published until the 1930s. Despite numerous protests,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120517002646/http://www.zionistarchives.org.il/ZA/SiteE/pShowView.aspx?GM=Y&ID=48&Teur=Protest%20against%20the%20suppression%20of%20Hebrew%20in%20the%20Soviet%20Union%20%201930-1931 Protest against the suppression of Hebrew in the Soviet Union 1930–1931] signed by [[Albert Einstein]], among others.</ref> a policy of suppression of the teaching of Hebrew operated from the 1930s on. Later in the 1980s in the [[Soviet Union|USSR]], Hebrew studies reappeared due to people struggling for permission to go to Israel ([[refusenik]]s). Several of the teachers were imprisoned, e.g. [[Iosif Begun|Yosef Begun]], [[Ephraim Kholmyansky]], [[Yevgeny Korostyshevsky]] and others responsible for a Hebrew learning network connecting many cities of the USSR.
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