Brahman

===Brahman as an ontological concept===
''Brahman'', along with Self (Atman) are part of the ontological<ref>that is things, beings or truths that are presumed to exist for its philosophical theory to be true, and what is the nature of that which so exists?; see: Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/ontology/ Ontology], ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', {{ISBN|978-0415073103}}</ref> premises of Indian philosophy.<ref>Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/ontology/ Ontology], ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', {{ISBN|978-0415073103}}, Accessed (13 June 2015)</ref><ref>Stephen H. Phillips (2001), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1400164 Could There Be Mystical Evidence for a Nondual Brahman? A Causal Objection], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 51, No. 4, pages 492–506</ref> Different schools of Indian philosophy have held widely dissimilar ontologies. [[Buddhism]] and [[Carvaka]] school of Hinduism deny that there exists anything called "a Self" (individual ''Atman'' or ''Brahman'' in the cosmic sense), while the orthodox schools of Hinduism, [[Jainism]] and [[Ajivika]]s hold that there exists "a Self".<ref>K. N. Jayatilleke (2010), ''Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge'', {{ISBN|978-8120806191}}, pages 246–249, from note 385 onwards;<br />Steven Collins (1994), ''Religion and Practical Reason'' (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791422175}}, page 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]]'' is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no Self, no unchanging essence.";<br />Edward Roer (Translator), {{Google books|3uwDAAAAMAAJ|Shankara's Introduction|page=2}}, pages 2–4<br />Katie Javanaud (2013), [https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?], ''Philosophy Now''<br />John C. Plott et al (2000), ''Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".</ref><ref>M. Prabhakar (2012), Review: An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, ''Philosophy in Review'', 32(3), pages 158–160</ref>

''Brahman'' as well the Atman in every human being (and living being) is considered equivalent and the sole reality, the eternal, self-born, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute in schools of Hinduism such as the [[Advaita Vedanta]] and [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]].<ref name=barbarasca>Barbara Holdrege (2004), ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, pages 241–242</ref><ref>Anantanand Rambachan (2014), ''A Hindu Theology of Liberation: Not-Two Is Not One'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438454559}}, pages 131–142</ref><ref>Ian Whicher (1999), ''The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791438152}}, pages 298–300;<br>Mike McNamee and William J. Morgan (2015), ''Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy of Sport'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415829809}}, pages 135–136, '''Quote''': "As a dualistic philosophy largely congruent with Samkhya's metaphysics, Yoga seeks liberation through the realization that Atman equals Brahman; it involves a cosmogonic dualism: purusha an absolute consciousness, and prakriti original and primeval matter."</ref> Knowing one's own self is knowing the God inside oneself, and this is held as the path to knowing the ontological nature of ''Brahman'' (universal Self) as it is identical to the Atman (individual Self). The nature of ''Atman-Brahman'' is held in these schools, states Barbara Holdrege, to be as a pure being (''sat''), consciousness (''cit'') and full of bliss (''ananda''), and it is formless, distinctionless, nonchanging and unbounded.<ref name=barbarasca/>

In theistic schools, in contrast, such as [[Dvaita Vedanta]], the nature of ''Brahman'' is held as eternal, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute, while each individual's Self is held as distinct and limited which can at best come close in eternal blissful love of the ''Brahman'' (therein viewed as the Godhead).<ref>Francis Clooney and Tony Stewart (2004), ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, pages 166–167</ref>

Other schools of Hinduism have their own ontological premises relating to ''Brahman'', reality and nature of existence. [[Vaisheshika]] school of Hinduism, for example, holds a substantial, realist ontology.<ref>Randy Kloetzli and Alf Hiltebeitel (2004), ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, page 554</ref> The [[Carvaka]] school denied ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'', and held a materialist ontology.<ref>Michael Myers (2000), ''Brahman: A Comparative Theology'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700712571}}, pages 30–31</ref>