Apartheid

== Society during apartheid ==
{{more citations needed|section|date=March 2022}}
[[File:1962-21-12 tussen Port Elizabeth en Grahamstad, ananasstalletje.jpg|thumb|Workers at a pineapple stall between [[Port Elizabeth]] and [[Grahamstown]], December 1962]]
The NP passed a string of legislation that became known as ''petty apartheid''. The first of these was the [[Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, 1949|Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act 55 of 1949]], prohibiting marriage between whites and people of other races. The Immorality Amendment Act 21 of 1950 (as amended in 1957 by Act 23) forbade "unlawful racial intercourse" and "any immoral or indecent act" between a white and a black, Indian or Coloured person.

Black people were not allowed to run businesses or professional practices in areas designated as "white South Africa" unless they had a permit – such being granted only exceptionally. Without a permit, they were required to move to the black "homelands" and set up businesses and practices there. Trains, hospitals and ambulances were segregated.<ref>On apartheid transport see Pirie, G.H. Travelling under apartheid. In D M Smith (ed.), ''The Apartheid City and Beyond: Urbanisation and Social Change in South Africa.'' Routledge, London (1992), pp. 172–181.</ref> Because of the smaller numbers of white patients and the fact that white doctors preferred to work in white hospitals, conditions in white hospitals were much better than those in often overcrowded and understaffed, significantly underfunded black hospitals.<ref name="hospital">[http://www.doh.gov.za/docs/policy/framewrk/chap01.html Health Sector Strategic Framework 1999–2004 – Background] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923163238/http://www.doh.gov.za/docs/policy/framewrk/chap01.html |date=23 September 2006 }}, Department of Health, 2004. Retrieved 8 November 2006.</ref> Residential areas were segregated and blacks were allowed to live in white areas only if employed as a servant and even then only in servants' quarters. Black people were excluded from working in white areas, unless they had a pass, nicknamed the ''dompas'', also spelt ''dompass'' or ''dom pass''. The most likely origin of this name is from the Afrikaans "verdomde pas" (meaning accursed pass),<ref name="dompass">[http://www.dsae.co.za/#!/search/hws/dompass/sN/pN Dictionary of South African English on historical principles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214231140/https://www.dsae.co.za/#!/search/hws/dompass/sN/pN |date=14 December 2019 }}. Retrieved 27 December 2015.</ref> although some commentators ascribe it to the Afrikaans words meaning "dumb pass". Only black people with "Section 10" rights (those who had migrated to the cities before World War II) were excluded from this provision. A pass was issued only to a black person with approved work. Spouses and children had to be left behind in black homelands. A pass was issued for one magisterial district (usually one town) confining the holder to that area only. Being without a valid pass made a person subject to arrest and trial for being an illegal migrant. This was often followed by deportation to the person's [[Bantustan|homeland]] and prosecution of the employer for employing an illegal migrant. Police vans patrolled white areas to round up blacks without passes. Black people were not allowed to employ whites in white South Africa.<ref>{{cite book|title = The Conflict in South Africa|last = Saaty|first = Thomas|publisher = Springer Publishing|page = 119}}</ref>

This legally enforced segregation was reinforced through deliberate town planning measures, such as introducing natural, industrial and infrastructural buffer zones.<ref>{{cite thesis |title=An Undivided Landscape: Dissolving Apartheid buffer zones in Johannesburg, South Africa |url=https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/handle/10012/7504 |publisher=University of Waterloo |date=1 May 2013 |degree=Master Thesis |language=en |first=Michelle |last=Greyling}}</ref> The legacy of this town planning element still hinders economic integration of urban economies today.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Laufs |first=Johannes |date=2011 |title=Document: Bridging the Economic Divide in Urban Areas of Namibia: Townships within the Local Economic Development Framework |url=http://rgdoi.net/10.13140/RG.2.1.1825.5600 |doi=10.13140/RG.2.1.1825.5600}}</ref>

Although trade unions for black and Coloured workers had existed since the early 20th century, it was not until the 1980s reforms that a mass black trade union movement developed. [[Trade unions in South Africa|Trade unions]] under apartheid were racially segregated, with 54 unions being white only, 38 for Indian and Coloured and 19 for black people. The Industrial Conciliation Act (1956) legislated against the creation of multi-racial trade unions and attempted to split existing multi-racial unions into separate branches or organisations along racial lines.<ref>{{cite book|last=Omond|first=Roger|title=The Apartheid Handbook|year=1986|publisher=Penguin Books|location=Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England|isbn=978-0-14-022749-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/apartheidhandboo0000omon_z0a2/page/102 102–109]|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/apartheidhandboo0000omon_z0a2/page/102}}</ref>

Each black homeland controlled its own education, health and police systems. Blacks were not allowed to buy [[hard liquor]]. They were able to buy only state-produced poor quality beer (although this law was relaxed later). Public beaches, swimming pools, some pedestrian bridges, drive-in cinema parking spaces, graveyards, parks, and public toilets were segregated. Cinemas and theatres in white areas were not allowed to admit blacks. There were practically no cinemas in black areas. Most restaurants and hotels in white areas were not allowed to admit blacks except as staff. Blacks were prohibited from attending white churches under the Churches Native Laws Amendment Act of 1957, but this was never rigidly enforced, and churches were one of the few places races could mix without the interference of the law. Blacks earning 360 [[South African rand|rand]] a year or more had to pay taxes while the white threshold was more than twice as high, at 750 rand a year. On the other hand, the taxation rate for whites was considerably higher than that for blacks.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}

Blacks could not acquire land in white areas. In the homelands, much of the land belonged to a "tribe", where the local chieftain would decide how the land had to be used. This resulted in whites owning almost all the industrial and agricultural lands and much of the prized residential land. Most blacks were stripped of their South African citizenship when the "homelands" became "independent", and they were no longer able to apply for [[South African passport]]s. Eligibility requirements for a passport had been difficult for blacks to meet, the government contending that a passport was a privilege, not a right, and the government did not grant many passports to blacks. Apartheid pervaded culture as well as the law, and was entrenched by most of the [[Media of South Africa|mainstream media]].

=== Coloured classification ===
{{Discrimination sidebar}}
{{Main|Coloureds}}
The population was classified into four groups: African, White, Indian, and Coloured (capitalised to denote their legal definitions in [[Law of South Africa|South African law]]). The Coloured group included people regarded as being of mixed descent, including of [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]], [[Khoisan]], [[European ethnic groups|European]] and [[Malay race|Malay]] ancestry. Many were descended from slaves, or indentured workers, who had been brought to South Africa from [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Madagascar]], and [[China]].<ref name="Intro">Patric Tariq Mellet [https://archive.today/20120707062952/http://cape-slavery-heritage.iblog.co.za/intro/ "Intro"], ''Cape Slavery Heritage''. Retrieved 24 May 2011.</ref>

The Population Registration Act, (Act 30 of 1950), defined South Africans as belonging to one of three races: White, Black or Coloured. People of Indian ancestry were considered Coloured under this act. Appearance, social acceptance and descent were used to determine the qualification of an individual into one of the three categories. A white person was described by the act as one whose parents were both white and possessed the "habits, speech, education, deportment and demeanour" of a white person. Blacks were defined by the act as belonging to an African race or tribe. Lastly, Coloureds were those who could not be classified as black or white.<ref name="SAHistoryOrg">{{cite web |title=Apartheid Legislation 1850s – 1970s |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/apartheid-legislation-1850s-1970s |website=SAHistory.org |access-date=20 May 2019 |archive-date=1 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401181624/https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/apartheid-legislation-1850s-1970s |url-status=live }}</ref>

The apartheid bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria at the time that the Population Registration Act was implemented to determine who was Coloured. Minor officials would administer tests to determine if someone should be categorised either Coloured or White, or if another person should be categorised either Coloured or Black. The tests included the [[Pencil test (South Africa)|pencil test]], in which a pencil was shoved into the subjects' curly hair and the subjects made to shake their head. If the pencil stuck they were deemed to be Black; if dislodged they were pronounced Coloured. Other tests involved examining the shapes of jaw lines and buttocks and pinching people to see what language they would say "Ouch" in.<ref name="NewScientist1991">{{cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Sue |title=Forum: Watching the 'race' detectives – The results of South Africa's race classification laws |journal=New Scientist |date=20 April 1991 |volume=1765 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13017656-200-forum-watching-the-race-detectives-the-results-of-south-africas-race-classification-laws/ |access-date=20 May 2019 |archive-date=15 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015181712/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13017656-200-forum-watching-the-race-detectives-the-results-of-south-africas-race-classification-laws/ |url-status=live }}</ref> As a result of these tests, different members of the same family found themselves in different race groups. Further tests determined membership of the various sub-racial groups of the Coloureds.

Discriminated against by apartheid, Coloureds were as a matter of state policy forced to live in separate [[Township (South Africa)|townships]], as defined in the Group Areas Act (1950),<ref name="GroupAreas1950">{{cite web |title=Group Areas Act of 1950 |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/group-areas-act-1950 |website=SAHistory.org.za |access-date=20 May 2019 |archive-date=9 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190309234411/https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/group-areas-act-1950 |url-status=live }}</ref> in some cases leaving homes their families had occupied for generations, and received an inferior education, though better than that provided to Africans. They played an important role in the [[Internal resistance to apartheid|anti-apartheid movement]]: for example the [[African Political Organization]] established in 1902 had an exclusively Coloured membership.

Voting rights were denied to Coloureds in the same way that they were denied to Blacks from 1950 to 1983. However, in 1977 the NP caucus approved proposals to bring Coloureds and Indians into central government. In 1982, final constitutional proposals produced a referendum among Whites, and the [[Tricameral Parliament]] was approved. The Constitution was reformed the following year to allow the Coloured and Indian minorities participation in separate Houses in a Tricameral Parliament, and Botha became the first Executive State President. The idea was that the Coloured minority could be granted [[Suffrage|voting rights]], but the Black majority were to become citizens of independent homelands.<ref name="SAHistoryOrg"/><ref name="GroupAreas1950"/> These separate arrangements continued until the abolition of apartheid. The Tricameral reforms led to the formation of the (anti-apartheid) [[United Democratic Front (South Africa)|United Democratic Front]] as a vehicle to try to prevent the co-option of Coloureds and Indians into an alliance with Whites. The battles between the UDF and the NP government from 1983 to 1989 were to become the most intense period of struggle between left-wing and right-wing South Africans.

=== Education ===
[[Education in South Africa|Education]] was segregated by the 1953 [[Bantu Education Act]], which crafted a separate system of education for black South African students and was designed to prepare black people for lives as a labouring class.<ref name="byrnes">{{cite book|last=Byrnes|first=Rita M.|title=South Africa: A Country Study|publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress|year=1996|location=Washington|url=http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/|access-date=25 March 2016|archive-date=29 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629175000/http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1959 separate universities were created for black, Coloured and Indian people. Existing universities were not permitted to enroll new black students. The Afrikaans Medium Decree of 1974 required the use of [[Afrikaans]] and English on an equal basis in high schools outside the homelands.<ref name="afrikaans_medium_decree">{{cite web|url=http://africanhistory.about.com/library/bl/blsaJune16decree.htm|title=The Afrikaans Medium Decree|access-date=14 March 2007|publisher=About.com| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070225005315/http://africanhistory.about.com/library/bl/blsaJune16decree.htm| archive-date= 25 February 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref>

In the 1970s, the state spent ten times more per child on the education of white children than on black children within the [[Bantu Education Act, 1953|Bantu Education system]] (the education system in black schools within white South Africa). Higher education was provided in separate universities and colleges after 1959. Eight black universities were created in the homelands. [[Fort Hare University]] in the [[Ciskei]] (now [[Eastern Cape]]) was to register only [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]]-speaking students. [[Sesotho|Sotho]], [[Setswana|Tswana]], [[Sepedi|Pedi]] and [[Venda language|Venda]] speakers were placed at the newly founded [[University of Limpopo|University College of the North]] at Turfloop, while the [[University of Zululand|University College of Zululand]] was launched to serve [[Zulu people|Zulu]] students. Coloureds and Indians were to have their own establishments in the [[University of the Western Cape|Cape]] and [[University of Durban-Westville|Natal]] respectively.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Overcoming the Apartheid Legacy in Cape Town Schools|last = Lemon|first = Anthony|date = 2009|journal = Review| volume=99 | issue=4 | page=517 | doi=10.1111/j.1931-0846.2009.tb00445.x | bibcode=2009GeoRv..99..517L | s2cid=144615165 }}</ref>

Each black homeland controlled its own education, health and police systems.

By 1948, before formal Apartheid, 10 universities existed in South Africa: four were Afrikaans, four for English, one for Blacks and a Correspondence University open to all ethnic groups. By 1981, under apartheid government, 11 new universities were built: seven for Blacks, one for Coloureds, one for Indians, one for Afrikaans and one dual-language medium Afrikaans and English.

=== Women under apartheid ===
[[File:Collectie Fotocollectiie Afdrukken ANEFO Rousel, fotonummer 157-0188, Bestanddeelnr 157-0188.jpg|thumb|Black women demonstrate against pass laws, 1956]]
Colonialism and apartheid had a major effect on Black and Coloured women, since they suffered both racial and gender discrimination.<ref>{{cite web|title=Women's Charter, 17 April 1954 Johannesburg |url=http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?id=4666 |publisher=ANC |access-date=15 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116104233/http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?id=4666 |archive-date=16 January 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Cotula|first=Lorenzo|title=Gender and Law: Women's Rights in Agriculture|year=2006|publisher=FAO|location=Rome|isbn=9789251055632|pages=46–52|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JPDXvKekn0IC|access-date=25 March 2016|archive-date=13 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213174949/https://books.google.com/books?id=JPDXvKekn0IC|url-status=live}}</ref> Judith Nolde argues that in general, South African women were "deprive[d] [...] of their human rights as individuals" under the apartheid system.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Nolde|first=Judith|date=1991|title=South African women under apartheid: Employment rights with particular focus on domestic service and forms of resistance to promote change.|url=https://scholar.valpo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1074&context=twls|journal=Third World Legal Studies|volume=10|page=204|via=scholar.valpo.edu.|access-date=2 July 2020|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308155037/https://scholar.valpo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1074&context=twls|url-status=live}}</ref> Jobs were often hard to find. Many Black and Coloured women worked as agricultural or [[domestic worker]]s, but wages were extremely low, if existent.<ref name="d">{{cite book|last1=Lapchick|first1=Richard E.|first2=Stephanie|last2=Urdang|year=1982|title=Oppression and Resistance: The Struggle of Women in Southern Africa|publisher=Greenwood Press|pages=48, 52 |isbn=9780313229602 |url=}}</ref> Children developed diseases caused by malnutrition and sanitation problems, and [[mortality rate]]s were therefore high. The controlled movement of black and Coloured workers within the country through the Natives Urban Areas Act of 1923 and the pass laws separated family members from one another, because men could prove their employment in urban centres while most women were merely [[Dependant|dependents]]; consequently, they risked being deported to rural areas.<ref name="bern">{{cite book|last=Bernstein|first=Hilda|year=1985|title=For their Triumphs and for their Tears: Women in Apartheid South Africa|publisher=International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa|page=48}}</ref> Even in rural areas there were legal hurdles for women to own land, and outside the cities jobs were scarce.<ref>{{cite book|last=Landis|first=Elizabeth S|title=African Women Under Apartheid|publisher=Africa Fund|year=1975|location=New York|pages=2–3}}</ref>

=== Sport under apartheid ===
{{See also|Rugby union and apartheid}}
By the 1930s, [[association football]] mirrored the [[Balkanization|balkanised]] society of South Africa; football was divided into numerous institutions based on race: the (White) [[South African Football Association]], the South African Indian Football Association (SAIFA), the South African African Football Association (SAAFA) and its rival the South African Bantu Football Association, and the South African Coloured Football Association (SACFA). Lack of funds to provide proper equipment would be noticeable in regards to black amateur football matches; this revealed the unequal lives black South Africans were subject to, in contrast to Whites, who were much better off financially.<ref>{{cite book|last=Alegi|first=Peter|year=2004|title=Laduma! Soccer, Politics and Society in South Africa|publisher=University of KwaZula-Natal Press|page=59}}</ref> Apartheid's social engineering made it more difficult to compete across racial lines. Thus, in an effort to centralise finances, the federations merged in 1951, creating the South African Soccer Federation (SASF), which brought Black, Indian, and Coloured national associations into one body that opposed apartheid. This was generally opposed more and more by the growing apartheid government, and{{snds}}with urban segregation being reinforced with ongoing racist policies{{snds}}it was harder to play football along these racial lines. In 1956, the Pretoria regime{{snds}}the administrative capital of South Africa{{snds}}passed the first apartheid sports policy; by doing so, it emphasised the White-led government's opposition to inter-racialism.

While football was plagued by racism, it also played a role in protesting apartheid and its policies. With the international bans from [[FIFA]] and other major sporting events, South Africa would be in the spotlight internationally. In a 1977 survey, white South Africans ranked the lack of international sport as one of the three most damaging consequences of apartheid.<ref name=robnixon>{{cite book|last=Nixon|first=Rob|year=1992|title=Apartheid on the Run: The South African Sports Boycott|publisher=Indiana University Press|pages=75, 77}}</ref> By the mid-1950s, Black South Africans would also use media to challenge the "racialisation" of sports in South Africa; anti-apartheid forces had begun to pinpoint sport as the "weakness" of white national morale. Black journalists for the ''Johannesburg Drum'' magazine were the first to give the issue public exposure, with an intrepid special issue in 1955 that asked, "Why shouldn't our blacks be allowed in the SA team?"<ref name=robnixon /> As time progressed, international standing with South Africa would continue to be strained. In the 1980s, as the oppressive system was slowly collapsing the ANC and National Party started negotiations on the end of apartheid, football associations also discussed the formation of a single, non-racial controlling body. This unity process accelerated in the late 1980s and led to the creation, in December 1991, of an incorporated South African Football Association. On 3 July 1992, FIFA finally welcomed South Africa back into international football.

Sport has long been an important part of life in South Africa, and the boycotting of games by international teams had a profound effect on the white population, perhaps more so than the trade embargoes did. After the re-acceptance of South Africa's sports teams by the international community, sport played a major unifying role between the country's diverse ethnic groups. Mandela's open support of the predominantly white rugby fraternity during the [[1995 Rugby World Cup]] was considered instrumental in bringing together South African sports fans of all races.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Nauright|first=John|year=2004|title=Global Games: Culture, Political Economy and Sport in the Globalised World of the 21st Century|journal=Third World Quarterly|volume=25|issue=7|pages=1325–36|doi=10.1080/014365904200281302|s2cid=154741874}}</ref>

==== Professional boxing ====
Activities in the sport of professional boxing were also affected, as there were 44 recorded professional boxing fights for national titles as deemed "for Whites only" between 1955 and 1979,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://boxrec.com/en/titles?t%5Bbout_title%5D=389&t%5Bdivision%5D=schedule&t_go=|title=BoxRec: Titles|access-date=15 June 2021|archive-date=6 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206070334/https://boxrec.com/en/titles?t%5Bbout_title%5D=389&t%5Bdivision%5D=schedule&t_go=|url-status=live}}</ref> and 397 fights as deemed "for non-Whites" between 1901 and 1978.<ref name="boxrec.com">{{cite web|url=https://boxrec.com/en/titles?t%5Bbout_title%5D=388&t%5Bdivision%5D=results&t_go=&offset=0|title=BoxRec: Titles|access-date=15 June 2021|archive-date=6 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206070307/https://boxrec.com/en/titles?t%5Bbout_title%5D=388&t%5Bdivision%5D=results&t_go=&offset=0|url-status=live}}</ref>

The first fight for a national "White" title was held on 9 April 1955, between Flyweights [[Jerry Jooste]] and Tiny Corbett at the City Hall in Johannesburg; it was won by Jooste by a twelve rounds points decision.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://boxrec.com/en/ent/634779|title=BoxRec|website=boxrec.com}}{{Dead link|date=February 2022|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> The last one was between national "White" Light-Heavyweight champion [[Gerrie Bodenstein]] and challenger Mervin Smit on 5 February 1979, at the [[Joekies Ice Rink]] in [[Welkom]], [[Free State (province)|Free State]]. it was won by the champion by a fifth-round technical knockout.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://boxrec.com/en/event/291594|title=BoxRec: Event|access-date=15 June 2021|archive-date=5 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105063753/https://boxrec.com/en/event/291594|url-status=live}}</ref>

The first "non Whites" South African national championship bout on record apparently (the date appears as "uncertain" on the records) took place on 1 May 1901, between [[Andrew Jephtha]] and Johnny Arendse for the vacant Lightweight belt, Jephtha winning by knockout in round nineteen of a twenty rounds-scheduled match, in Cape Town.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://boxrec.com/en/event/522824|title=BoxRec: Event|access-date=15 June 2021|archive-date=6 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206070302/https://boxrec.com/en/event/522824|url-status=live}}</ref>

The last "non White" title bout took place on 18 December 1978, between [[Sipho Mange]] and [[Chris Kid Dlamini]]; Mange-Dlamini was the culminating fight of a boxing program that included several other "non White" championship contests. Mange won the vacant non-White Super Bantamweight title by outpointing Dlamini over twelve rounds at the [[Goodwood Showgrounds]] in Cape Town.<ref name="boxrec.com"/>

=== Asians during apartheid ===
{{Further|Indian South Africans|Chinese South Africans|Honorary whites}}
[[File:1963-1-10 Durban - Indian woman dia 2.jpg|thumb|[[Indian South African]]s in Durban, 1963]]
Defining its Asian population, a minority that did not appear to belong to any of the initial three designated non-white groups, was a constant dilemma for the apartheid government.

The classification of "[[honorary white]]" (a term which would be ambiguously used throughout apartheid) was granted to immigrants from [[Japan]], [[South Korea]] and [[Taiwan]]{{snds}}countries with which South Africa maintained diplomatic and economic relations<ref>{{cite news|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/chinajournal/2008/06/19/in-south-africa-chinese-is-the-new-black|date=19 June 2008|title=In South Africa, Chinese is the New Black|publisher=China Realtime Report|access-date=4 August 2017|archive-date=24 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724024004/http://blogs.wsj.com/chinajournal/2008/06/19/in-south-africa-chinese-is-the-new-black/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{snds}}and to their descendants.

[[Indian South Africans]] during apartheid were classified many ranges of categories from "Asian" to "black" {{clarify|date=June 2014}} to "Coloured" {{clarify|date=June 2014}} and even the mono-ethnic category of "Indian", but never as white, having been considered "nonwhite" throughout South Africa's history. The group faced severe discrimination during the apartheid regime and were subject to numerous racialist policies.

In 2005, a retrospect study was done by Josephine C. Naidoo and Devi Moodley Rajab, where they interviewed a series of Indian South Africans about their experience living through apartheid; their study highlighted education, the workplace, and general day to day living. One participant who was a doctor said that it was considered the norm for Non-White and White doctors to mingle while working at the hospital but when there was any down time or breaks, they were to go back to their segregated quarters. Not only was there severe segregation for doctors, non-white, more specifically Indians, were paid three to four times less than their white counterparts. Many described being treated as a "third class citizen" due to the humiliation of the standard of treatment for non-white employees across many professions. Many Indians described a sense of justified superiority from whites due to the apartheid laws that, in the minds of White South Africans, legitimised those feelings. Another finding of this study was the psychological damage done to Indians living in South Africa during apartheid. One of the biggest long-term effects on Indians was the distrust of white South Africans. There was a strong degree of alienation that left a strong psychological feeling of inferiority.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1177/097133360501700204|title = The Dynamics of Oppression| journal=Psychology and Developing Societies| volume=17| issue=2| pages=139–159|year = 2005|last1 = Naidoo|first1 = Josephine C.| last2=Rajab| first2=Devi Moodley|s2cid = 145782935}}</ref>

[[Chinese South Africans]]{{snds}}who were descendants of migrant workers who came to work in the [[Gold mining|gold mines]] around Johannesburg in the late 19th century{{snds}}were initially either classified as "Coloured" or "Other Asian" and were subject to numerous forms of discrimination and restriction.<ref name="Sze memoir">{{cite book|last1=Sze |first1=Szeming |title=World War II Memoirs, 1941–1945 |date=2014 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh |location=Pittsburgh |page=42 |edition=Digital |url=http://digital.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/t/text/text-idx?idno=31735066261615;view=toc;c=ulstext |access-date=7 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108030328/http://digital.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/t/text/text-idx?idno=31735066261615%3Bview%3Dtoc%3Bc%3Dulstext |archive-date=8 November 2014 }}</ref> It was not until 1984 that [[Chinese South Africans|South African Chinese]], increased to about 10,000, were given the same official rights as the [[Japanese diaspora|Japanese]], to be treated as whites in terms of the Group Areas Act, although they still faced discrimination and did not receive all the benefits/rights of their newly obtained honorary white status such as voting.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}<ref>{{cite web|title=From second-class citizen to 'Honorary White': changing state views of Chinese in South Africa|url=http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10539/1672/02Park_Chapter%202.pdf;jsessionid=D5157BAA085FC8DC8E63F3097E863396?sequence=2|last=Morsy|first=Soheir|website=Wiredspace|access-date=28 May 2020|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726090100/http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10539/1672/02Park_Chapter%202.pdf;jsessionid=D5157BAA085FC8DC8E63F3097E863396?sequence=2|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Overseas Indonesians|Indonesians]] arrived at the Cape of Good Hope as slaves until the abolishment of slavery during the 19th century. They were predominantly [[Muslims|Muslim]], were allowed religious freedom and formed their own ethnic group/community known as [[Cape Malays]]. They were classified as part of the Coloured racial group.<ref>[http://heritage.thetimes.co.za/memorials/wc/RaceClassificationBoard/article.aspx?id=591128 An appalling "science"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120423220247/http://heritage.thetimes.co.za/memorials/wc/RaceClassificationBoard/article.aspx?id=591128 |date=23 April 2012 }}</ref> This was the same for South Africans of [[Malaysians|Malaysian]] descent who were also classified as part of the Coloured race and thus considered "not-white".<ref name="Intro" /> South Africans of [[Filipinos|Filipino]] descent were classified as "black" due to historical outlook on Filipinos by White South Africans, and many of them lived in Bantustans.<ref name="Intro" />

The [[Lebanese people in South Africa|Lebanese population]] were somewhat of an anomaly during the apartheid era. Lebanese immigration to South Africa was chiefly Christian, and the group was originally classified as non-white; however, a court case in 1913 ruled that because Lebanese and Syrians originated from the [[Canaan]] region (the birthplace of [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]]), they could not be discriminated against by race laws which targeted non-believers, and thus, were classified as white. The Lebanese community maintained their white status after the [[Population Registration Act]] came into effect; however, further immigration from the Middle East was restricted.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Muglia |first1=Caroline |title=Albinos in the Laager – Being Lebanese in South Africa |url=https://lebanesestudies.news.chass.ncsu.edu/2016/06/21/albinos-in-the-laager-being-lebanese-in-south-africa/ |website=Khayrallah Center for Lebanese Diaspora Studies News |publisher=North Carolina State University |access-date=26 April 2020 |date=21 June 2016 |archive-date=25 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425074930/https://lebanesestudies.news.chass.ncsu.edu/2016/06/21/albinos-in-the-laager-being-lebanese-in-south-africa/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Conservatism ===
Alongside apartheid, the National Party implemented a programme of social conservatism. Pornography,<ref>JCW Van Rooyen, Censorship in South Africa (Cape Town: Juta and Co., 1987), 5.</ref> [[Gambling in South Africa|gambling]]<ref>Bet and board in the new South Africa. (legalisation of gambling could lead to growth of casinos, lotteries)(Brief Article)
''The Economist'' (US) | 5 August 1995</ref> and works from [[Karl Marx|Marx]], [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]] and other socialist thinkers<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fauvet |first1=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnOIJThvRssC&pg=PA20 |title=Carlos Cardoso: Telling the Truth in Mozambique |last2=Mosse |first2=Marcelo |date=2003 |publisher=Juta and Company Ltd |isbn=978-1-919930-31-2 |pages=20 |language=en}}</ref> were banned. Cinemas, shops selling alcohol and most other businesses were [[blue law|forbidden from opening on Sundays]].<ref>Apartheid mythology and symbolism.
desegregated and re-invented in the service of
nation building in the new South Africa: the covenant and the battle of Blood/Ncome River</ref> [[Abortion]],<ref name="apfn.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.apfn.org/THEWINDS/arc_features/racial/safrica5-97.html |title=WINDS – South Africa Apartheid Defined by {{sic|Amer|cian|nolink=y}} Apartheid |publisher=Apfn.org |access-date=3 January 2011 |archive-date=12 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612134859/http://www.apfn.org/THEWINDS/arc_features/racial/safrica5-97.html |url-status=live }}</ref> homosexuality<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1136/bmj.329.7480.1415 | volume=329 | title=Treatment of homosexuality during apartheid | year=2004 | journal=BMJ | pages=1415–1416 | last1 = Kaplan | first1 = R. M | issue=7480 | pmid=15604160 | pmc=535952}}</ref> and sex education were also restricted; abortion was legal only in cases of rape or if the mother's life was threatened.<ref name="apfn.org" />

Television [[Television in South Africa|was not introduced]] until 1976 because the government viewed English programming as a threat to the Afrikaans language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://laboratoires.univ-reunion.fr/oracle/documents/217.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825105441/http://laboratoires.univ-reunion.fr/oracle/documents/217.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 August 2009 |title=Why South Africa's Television is only Twenty Years Old: Debating Civilisation, 1958–1969 |first=Bernard |last=Cros |year=1997 }}</ref> Television was run on apartheid lines{{snds}}TV1 broadcast in Afrikaans and English (geared to a White audience), TV2 in Zulu and Xhosa, TV3 in Sotho, Tswana and [[Northern Sotho language|Pedi]] (both geared to a Black audience), and TV4 mostly showed programmes for an urban Black audience.