Racial segregation

== Historic cases from ancient times to the 1960s ==
Wherever multiracial communities have existed, racial segregation has also been practiced. Only areas with extensive [[interracial marriage]], such as [[Hawaii]] and [[Brazil]], seem to be exempt from it, despite some social stratification within them.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Racial segregation |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/488135/racial-segregation |website=Britannica Online Encyclopedia|date=28 August 2023 }}</ref>

=== Imperial China ===

====Tang dynasty====
[[File:Sogdian New Year Festival, Northern Qi.jpg|thumb|Ethnic Han were banned from forming relationships with Sogdians, depicted here on the [[Anyang funerary bed]], circa 567/573.]]
Several laws which enforced racial segregation of foreigners from Chinese were passed by the [[Han Chinese]] during the [[Tang dynasty]].{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} In 779, the Tang dynasty issued an edict which forced [[Uyghur Khaganate#Successors|Uyghurs]] to wear their ethnic dress, stopped them from marrying Chinese females, and banned them from pretending to be Chinese.<ref name="Edward H. Schafer 1963 22">{{Cite book |last=Edward H. Schafer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jqAGIL02BWQC&q=chinese+uighurs+779+edict+lure+canton+836+foreigners+and+chinese+lu+governor+forbade+marriages+forced+separate&pg=PA22 |title=The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics |publisher=University of California Press |year=1963 |isbn=978-0-520-05462-2 |page=22 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> In 836, when Lu Chun was appointed as governor of [[Guangzhou|Canton]], he was disgusted to find Chinese living with foreigners and intermarriage between Chinese and foreigners. Lu enforced separation, banning interracial marriages, and made it illegal for foreigners to own property. Lu Chun believed his principles were just and upright.<ref name="Edward H. Schafer 1963 22" /> The 836 law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "Dark peoples" or "People of colour", which was used to describe foreigners, such as "[[Iranians in China|Iranians]], [[Sogdia]]ns, [[Arabs]], [[Indians in China|Indians]], [[Malaysian diaspora|Malays]], [[Sumatra]]ns", among others.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mark Edward Lewis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vpgVvAh2_EsC&q=836+law+tang+dynasty&pg=PA170 |title=China's cosmopolitan empire: the Tang dynasty |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-03306-1 |page=170 |access-date=28 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jacques Gernet |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern |title=A history of Chinese civilization |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-49781-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/294 294] |quote=836 decree chinese people of colour. |access-date=28 October 2010 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

==== Qing dynasty ====
[[File:康熙帝南巡图卷，治黃河.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Han and Manchu people depicted together in separate styles of clothing]]

{{Main|Eight Banners}}

The [[Qing dynasty]] was founded not by Han Chinese, who form the majority of the Chinese population, but by [[Manchu people|Manchus]], who are today an ethnic minority of China. The Manchus were keenly aware of their minority status, however, it was only later in the dynasty that they banned intermarriage.

Han defectors played a massive role in the Qing conquest of China. Han Chinese Generals of the [[Ming dynasty|Ming Dynasty]] who defected to the Manchu were often [[Heqin#Qing dynasty|given women from the Imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage]] while the ordinary soldiers who defected were given non-royal Manchu women as wives. The Manchu leader [[Nurhaci]] married one of his granddaughters to the Ming General [[Li Yongfang]] after he surrendered [[Fushun]] in [[Liaoning]] to the Manchu in 1618.<ref name="ed. Walthall 2008">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXHbhsfaJAYC&pg=PA148 |title=ed. Walthall |year=2008 |page=148|isbn=9780520254442 |last1=Walthall |first1=Anne |publisher=University of California Press }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORBmFSFcJKoC&pg=PA79 |title=Wakeman |year=1977 |page=79|isbn=9780029336809 |last1=Wakeman |first1=Frederic |publisher=Simon and Schuster }}</ref> [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] (Manchu) women married most of the Han Chinese defectors in Liaodong.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ai1_5IHQ9vsC&pg=PA95 |title=Crossley |year=2010 |page=95|isbn=9780674054097 |last1=Kagan |first1=Kimberly |publisher=Harvard University Press }}</ref> Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han Chinese Generals [[Sun Sike]] (Sun Ssu-k'o), [[Geng Jimao]] (Keng Chi-mao), [[Shang Kexi]] (Shang K'o-hsi), and [[Wu Sangui]] (Wu San-kuei).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA179 |title=eds. Watson, Ebrey |year=1991 |pages=179–180|isbn=9780520071247 |last1=Watson |first1=Rubie S. |last2=Ebrey |first2=Patricia Buckley |publisher=University of California Press }}</ref>

A mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto and [[Hongtaiji]] in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.<ref name="ed. Walthall 2008" />

[[Geng Zhongming]], a Han bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sons [[Geng Jingzhong]] and Geng Zhaozhong become court attendants under [[Shunzhi Emperor|Shunzhi]] and marry Aisin Gioro women, with Haoge's (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong and Prince Abatai's (Hong Taiji) granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Wakeman, Frederic Jr.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA1017 |title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China |date=1 January 1985 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520048041 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

The Qing differentiated between Han Bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han Bannermen were made out of Han Chinese who defected to the Qing up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75%.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cpfgQNWXpyoC&pg=PA141 |title=Naquin |year=1987 |page=141|isbn=0300046022 |last1=Naquin |first1=Susan |last2=Rawski |first2=Evelyn Sakakida |publisher=Yale University Press }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZt0TgTAgPoC&pg=PA146 |title=Fairbank, Goldman |year=2006|isbn=9780674036659 |last1=Fairbank |first1=John King |last2=Goldman |first2=Merle |publisher=Harvard University Press }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Summing up Naquin/Rawski |url=https://pages.uoregon.edu/inaasim/Mingqing04/Qing3.htm |website=pages.uoregon.edu}}</ref> It was this multi-ethnic force in which Manchus were only a minority, which conquered China for the Qing.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA175 |title=eds. Watson, Ebrey |year=1991 |page=175|isbn=9780520071247 |last1=Watson |first1=Rubie S. |last2=Ebrey |first2=Patricia Buckley |publisher=University of California Press }}</ref>

It was Han Chinese Bannermen who were responsible for the successful Qing conquest of China, they made up the majority of governors in the early Qing and were the ones who governed and administered China after the conquest, stabilizing Qing rule.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vI1RRslLNSwC&pg=PA41 |title=Spencer |year=1990 |page=41|isbn=9780393307801 |last1=Spence |first1=Jonathan D. |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company }}</ref> Han Bannermen dominated the post of governor-general in the time of the Shunzhi and [[Kangxi Emperor]]s, and also the post of governors, largely excluding ordinary Han civilians from the posts.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rXiSxh1oGe0C&pg=PA5 |title=Spence |year=1988 |pages=4–5|isbn=0300042779 |last1=Spence |first1=Jonathan D. |publisher=Yale University Press }}</ref>

To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from the Manchu [[Shunzhi Emperor]] allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners, it was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wang 2004, pp. 215–216 & 219–221. |url=http://www.chss.iup.edu/chr/CHR-2004Fall-11-WANG-research%20notes-final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111230216/http://www.chss.iup.edu/chr/CHR-2004Fall-11-WANG-research%20notes-final.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Walthall |first=Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXHbhsfaJAYC&pg=PA140 |title=Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520254442 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

The Qing implemented a policy of segregation between the Bannermen of the [[Eight Banners]] (Manchu Bannermen, Mongol Bannermen, Han Bannermen) and Han Chinese civilians{{when|date=July 2015}}. This ethnic segregation had cultural and economic reasons: intermarriage was forbidden to keep up the Manchu heritage and minimize [[sinicization]]. Han Chinese civilians and Mongol civilians [[Willow Palisade|were banned]] from settling in Manchuria.<ref>{{Cite web |title=From Ming to Qing |url=http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~inaasim/Mingqing04/Qing2.htm |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=Darkwing.uoregon.edu}}</ref> Han civilians and Mongol civilians were banned from crossing into each other's lands. Ordinary Mongol civilians in Inner Mongolia were banned from even crossing into other [[Banners of Inner Mongolia|Mongol Banners]] (a banner in Inner Mongolia was an administrative division and not related to the Mongol Bannermen in the Eight Banners).

These restrictions did not apply to [[Eight Banners|Han Bannermen]], who were settled in Manchuria by the Qing. Han bannermen were differentiated from Han civilians by the Qing and treated differently.

The Qing Dynasty started [[Chuang Guandong|colonizing Manchuria with Han Chinese]] later on in the dynasty's rule, but the Manchu area was still separated from modern-day Inner Mongolia by the [[Willow Palisade|Outer Willow Palisade]], which kept the Manchu and the Mongols in the area separate.

The policy of segregation applied directly to the [[Eight Banners|banner]] garrisons, most of which occupied a separate walled zone within the cities in which they were stationed. Manchu Bannermen, Han Bannermen, and Mongol Bannermen were separated from the Han civilian population. While the Manchus followed the governmental structure of the preceding [[Ming dynasty]], their ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split between Manchu noblemen and Han Chinese civilian officials who had passed the highest levels of the [[Imperial examinations|state examinations]], and because of the small number of Manchus, this insured that a large fraction of them would be government officials.

=== Colonial societies ===

====Belgian Congo====
{{Main|Belgian Congo#Social inequality and racial discrimination }}

From 1952, and even more so after the triumphant visit of [[Baudouin of Belgium|King Baudouin]] to the colony in 1955, Governor-General [[Léon Pétillon]] (1952–1958) worked to create a "Belgian-Congolese community", in which Black and White people were to be treated as equals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pétillon |first=L. A. M. |title=Témoignage et réflexions |publisher=Renaissance du Livre |year=1967 |location=Brussels}}</ref> Regardless, [[anti-miscegenation laws]] remained in place, and between 1959 and 1962 thousands of mixed-race Congolese children were forcibly deported from the Congo by the Belgian government and the [[Catholic Church]] and taken to Belgium.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Paravicini |first=Giulia |date=4 April 2019 |title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF |access-date=10 July 2019}}</ref>

==== French Algeria ====

{{Main|French Algeria#Discrimination}}
{{See also|Indigénat|Assimilation (French colonialism)}}

Following its conquest of [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] controlled [[Algeria]] in 1830, for well over a century, France maintained [[French colonial empires|colonial rule]] in the territory which has been described as "quasi-[[apartheid]]".<ref name="Bell">{{Cite book |last=Bell |first=David Scott |title=Presidential Power in Fifth Republic France |publisher=Berg Publishers |year=2000 |page=36 |quote=Algeria was in fact a colony but constitutionally was a part of France and not thought of in the 1950s (even by many on the left) as a colony. It was a society of nine million or so 'Muslim' Algerians who were dominated by the million settlers of diverse origins (but fiercely French) who maintained a quasi-apartheid regime}}</ref> The colonial law of 1865 allowed Arab and [[Berbers|Berber]] Algerians to apply for [[French nationality law|French citizenship]] only if they abandoned their [[Islam in Algeria|Muslim]] identity; Azzedine Haddour argues that this established "the formal structures of a political apartheid".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Debra Kelly |title=Autobiography And Independence: Selfhood and Creativity in North African Postcolonial Writing in French |publisher=Liverpool University Press |year=2005 |page=43 |quote=...[the] ''senatus-consulte'' of 1865 stipulated that all the colonised indigenous were under French jurisdiction, i.e., French nationals subjected to French laws, but it restricted citizenship only to those who renounced their Muslim religion and culture. There was an obvious split in French legal discourse: a split between nationality and citizenship which established the formal structures of political apartheid encouraging the existence of 'French subjects' disenfranchised, without any citizenship rights, treated as objects of French law and not citizens}}</ref> Camille Bonora-Waisman writes that "in contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates", this "colonial apartheid society" was unique to Algeria.<ref name="Bonora-Waisman">{{Cite book |last=Bonora-Waisman |first=Camille |title=France and the Algerian Conflict: Issues in Democracy and Political Stability, 1988–1995 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2003 |page=3 |quote=In contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates, Algeria was made an integral part of France and became a colony of settlement for more than one million Europeans... under colonial rule, Algerians encountered France's 'civilising mission' only through the plundering of lands and colonial apartheid society...}}</ref>

This "internal system of apartheid" met with considerable resistance from the Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one of the causes of the [[Toussaint Rouge|1954 insurrection]] and ensuing [[Algerian War|independence war]].<ref name="Wall">{{Cite book |last=Wall |first=Irwin M. |title=France, the United States, and the Algerian War |publisher=University of California Press |year=2001 |page=262 |quote=As a settler colony with an internal system of apartheid, administered under the fiction that it was part of metropolitan France, and endowed with a powerful colonial lobby that virtually determined the course of French politics with respect to its internal affairs, it experienced insurrection in 1954 on the part of its Muslim population}}</ref>

==== Rhodesia ====
{{Further|Land reform in Zimbabwe#Creation of the Tribal Trust Lands|l1 = South Rhodesia Land Apportionment Act}}
[[File:Rhodesialand.png|thumb|Land apportionment in Rhodesia in 1965]]

The [[Land Apportionment Act of 1930]] passed in [[Southern Rhodesia]] (now known as [[Zimbabwe]]) was a segregationist measure that governed land allocation and acquisition in rural areas, making distinctions between Blacks and Whites.<ref>{{Cite book |last=JENNINGS |first=A. C. |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a100934 |title=LAND APPORTIONMENT IN SOUTHERN RHODESIA, African Affairs |date=July 1935 |volume=XXXIV |pages=296–312 |issue=CXXXVI|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a100934 }}</ref>

One highly publicised legal battle occurred in 1960 involving the opening of a new theatre that was to be open to all races; the proposed unsegregated [[public toilet]]s at the newly built [[Reps Theatre]] in 1959 caused an argument called [[Reps Theatre#"The Battle of the Toilets"|"The Battle of the Toilets"]].

==== Uganda ====
{{Further|Expulsion of Asians from Uganda}}
[[File:Idi Amin -Archives New Zealand AAWV 23583, KIRK1, 5(B), R23930288.jpg|thumb|upright|Idi Amin, pictured shortly after the expulsion]]

After the end of British rule in 1962, Indian people living in Uganda existed in segregated ethnic communities with their own schools and healthcare. <ref name="Journal of Modern African Studies">{{harvnb|Jamal|1976}}.</ref> Indians constituted 1% of the population but earned a fifth of the national income and controlled 90% of the country's businesses.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://m.aliran.com/thinking-allowed-online/idi-amins-expulsion-of-asians-in-1972-devastated-ugandas-economy | title=Idi Amin's expulsion of Asians in 1972 pummelled Uganda's economy | date=14 August 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://theconversation.com/taking-stock-of-ugandas-economy-55-years-after-independence-85238 | title=Taking stock of Uganda's economy 55 years after independence | date=8 October 2017 }}</ref>

In 1972, the [[President of Uganda]] [[Idi Amin]] ordered the expulsion of the country's Indian minority with disastrous consequences for the local economy. The government confiscated some 5,655 firms, ranches, farms, and agricultural estates, along with cars, homes and other household goods.<ref name="Jørgensen1981">{{harvnb|Jørgensen|1981|pp=285–290}}.</ref>

=== Religious and racial antisemitism ===

{{Main|Antisemitism|History of antisemitism|Religious antisemitism|Antisemitism in Christianity|History of European Jews in the Middle Ages|History of the Jews in Europe|Jewish ghettos in Europe|Antisemitism in Islam|History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Mellah|Racial antisemitism}}

[[History of the Jews in Europe|Jews in Europe]] were generally forced, by decree or by informal pressure, to live in highly segregated [[ghetto]]s and [[shtetl]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Wirth, Louis]] |title=The Ghetto |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=1997 |isbn=1-56000-983-7 |pages=29–40}}.</ref> In 1204, the [[papacy]] required Jews to segregate themselves from Christians and it also required them to wear distinctive clothing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Short History of the Jewish Tradition |url=http://www2.kenyon.edu/projects/margin/jew.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702212123/http://www2.kenyon.edu/projects/margin/jew.htm |archive-date=2 July 2010 |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=.kenyon.edu}}</ref> Forced segregation of Jews spread throughout Europe during the 14th and 15th centuries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghetto |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/232679/ghetto |website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=14 March 2024 }}</ref> In the [[Russian Empire]], Jews were restricted to the so-called [[Pale of Settlement]], the Western frontier of the Russian Empire which roughly corresponds to the modern-day countries of Poland, [[Lithuania]], [[Belarus]], [[Moldova]] and Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Anti-Semitism in modern Europe |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-215022/anti-Semitism |access-date=18 January 2010 |author=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> By the early 20th century, the majority of Europe's Jews lived in the Pale of Settlement.

From the beginning of the 15th century, Jewish populations in [[Morocco]] were confined to [[mellah]]s. In cities, a ''mellah'' was surrounded by a wall with a fortified gateway. In contrast, rural ''mellahs'' were separate villages whose sole inhabitants were Jews.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Jews of Morocco, by Ralph G. Bennettett |url=http://www.sefarad.org/publication/lm/017/morocco.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106134057/http://www.sefarad.org/publication/lm/017/morocco.html |archive-date=6 January 2010 |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=Sefarad.org}}</ref>

In the middle of the 19th century, [[J. J. Benjamin]] wrote about the lives of [[History of Jews in Iran|Persian Jews]]:
{{blockquote|…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town…; for they are considered as unclean creatures…  Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity, and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt…  For the same reason, they are prohibited to go out when it rains; for it is said the rain would wash dirt off them, which would sully the feet of the Mussulmans…  If a Jew is recognized as such in the streets, he is subjected to the greatest insults. The passers-by spit in his face, and sometimes beat him… unmercifully…  If a Jew enters a shop for anything, he is forbidden to inspect the goods… Should his hand incautiously touch the goods, he must take them at any price the seller chooses to ask for them... Sometimes the Persians intrude into the dwellings of the Jews and take possession of whatever please them. Should the owner make the least opposition in defense of his property, he incurs the danger of atoning for it with his life... If... a Jew shows himself in the street during the three days of the Katel (Muharram)…, he is sure to be murdered.<ref>Lewis (1984), pp. 181–183</ref>}}

On 16 May 1940 in Norway, the {{Lang|no|[[Administrasjonsrådet]]}} asked the [[Reichskommissariat Norwegen|Rikskommisariatet]] why radio receivers had been confiscated from Jews in Norway.<ref name="Folk, fører og frifinnelse">{{Cite web |last=Bomann-larsen |first=Tor |title=Folk, fører og frifinnelse |url=https://www.aftenposten.no/article/ap-aw0BO.html |website=Aftenposten|date=29 December 2011 }}</ref> That {{Lang|no|Administrasjonsrådet}} thereafter "quietly" accepted<ref name="Folk, fører og frifinnelse" /> racial segregation between Norwegian citizens, has been claimed by [[Tor Bomann-Larsen]]. Furthermore, he claimed that this segregation "created a [[precedent]]. 2 years later (with ''NS-styret'' in the ministries of Norway) Norwegian police [[Jewish deportees from Norway during World War II|arrested citizens at the addresses]] where radios had previously been confiscated from Jews.<ref name="Folk, fører og frifinnelse" />

==== Fascist Italy ====

{{Main|Italian fascism|Italian fascism and racism}}

In 1938, under pressure from the Nazis, the [[Italian Fascism|fascist regime]], which was led by [[Benito Mussolini]], passed a series of [[Italian Racial Laws|racial laws]] which instituted an official segregationist policy in the [[Kingdom of Italy|Italian Empire]], this policy was especially directed against [[Italian Jews]]. This policy enforced various segregationist norms, like the laws which banned Jews from teaching or studying in ordinary schools and universities, banned Jews from owning industries that were reputed to be very important to the nation, banned Jews from working as journalists, banned Jews from joining the military, and banned Jews from marrying non-Jews.
As an immediate consequence of the introduction of the 'provvedimenti per la difesa della razza' (norms for the defence of the race), many of the best Italian scientists quit their jobs, and some of them also left Italy. Amongst these scientists were the internationally-known physicists [[Emilio Segrè]], [[Enrico Fermi]] (whose wife was Jewish), [[Bruno Pontecorvo]], [[Bruno Rossi]], [[Tullio Levi-Civita]], mathematicians [[Federigo Enriques]] and [[Guido Fubini]] and even the fascist propaganda director, art critic and journalist [[Margherita Sarfatti]], who was one of Mussolini's mistresses. [[Rita Levi-Montalcini]], who would successively win the [[Nobel Prize for Medicine]], was forbidden to work at the university. Upon the passage of the racial law, [[Albert Einstein]] cancelled his honorary membership in the {{Lang|it|[[Accademia dei Lincei]]|italic=no}}.

After 1943, when [[Northern Italy]] was [[Kingdom of Italy#Civil war (1943–1945)|occupied by the Nazis]], Italian Jews were rounded up and became victims of the [[The Holocaust in Italy|Holocaust]].

==== Nazi Germany ====

{{Main|Nazism|Nazi racial theories|Racial policy of Nazi Germany}}
{{See also|Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany|Nur für Deutsche}}

[[File:Nur fur deutsche.jpg|thumb|upright|"Nur für deutsche Fahrgäste" ("Only for German passengers") on the tram number 8 in German-occupied [[Kraków]], Poland]]

German praise for America's system of [[institutional racism]], which was expressed in [[Adolf Hitler]]'s ''[[Mein Kampf]]'', was continuous throughout the early 1930s.<ref name="Whitman" /> The U.S. was the global leader of codified racism, and its race laws fascinated the Germans.<ref name="Whitman" /> The ''National Socialist Handbook for Law and Legislation'' of 1934–35, edited by Hitler's lawyer [[Hans Frank]], contains a pivotal essay by Herbert Kier on the recommendations for race legislation which devoted a quarter of its pages to U.S. legislation—from segregation, race-based citizenship, immigration regulations, and [[anti-miscegenation]].<ref name="Whitman" /> This directly inspired the two principal [[Nuremberg Laws]]—the Citizenship Law and the Blood Law.<ref name="Whitman">{{Cite book |last=Whitman |first=James Q. |title=Hitler's American Model: The United States and the Making of Nazi Race Law |date=2017 |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=37–43}}</ref> The ban on interracial marriage (anti-miscegenation) prohibited sexual relations and marriages between people classified as "[[Aryan]]" and "non-Aryan". Such relationships were called ''[[Rassenschande]]'' (race defilement). At first the laws were aimed primarily at Jews but were later extended to "[[Romani people|Gypsies]], [[Negro]]es".<ref>{{Cite book |last=S. H. Milton |title=Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2001 |isbn=9780691086842 |editor-last=Robert Gellately and Nathan Stoltzfus |pages=216, 231 |chapter="Gypsies" as social outsiders in Nazi Germany}}</ref><ref name="Burleigh1991">{{Cite book |last=Michael Burleigh |url=https://archive.org/details/racialstate00mich |title=The Racial State: Germany 1933–1945 |date=7 November 1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-39802-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/racialstate00mich/page/49 49] |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Laws for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour |date=15 September 1935 |chapter=1 |quote=Marriages between Jews and citizens of German or kindred blood are forbidden. Marriages concluded in defiance of this law are void, even if, for the purpose of evading this law, they were concluded abroad.}}</ref> Aryans found guilty could face incarceration in a [[Nazi concentration camp]], while non-Aryans could face the death penalty.<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Leila J. Rupp]] |title=Mobilizing Women for War |year=1978 |isbn=0-691-04649-2 |page=125|publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref> To preserve the so-called purity of the German blood, after the war began, the Nazis extended the race defilement law to include all foreigners (non-Germans).<ref name="Majer2003">{{Cite book |last=Diemut Majer |title="Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945 |publisher=JHU Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8018-6493-3 |page=180}}</ref>

Under the General Government of [[occupied Poland]] in 1940, the Nazis divided the population into different groups, each with different rights, food rations, allowed housing strips in the cities, public transportation, etc. In an effort to split the Polish people's identity, they attempted to establish ethnic divisions of [[Kashubians]] and [[Gorals]] ([[Goralenvolk]]), based on these groups' alleged "Germanic component".

During the 1930s and 1940s, Jews in [[German-occupied Europe|Nazi-controlled states]] were forced to wear something that identified them as Jewish, such as a [[yellow badge|yellow ribbon or a star of David]], and along with [[Romani people|Romas]] (Gypsies), they were subjected to discrimination by the racial laws. Jewish doctors were not allowed to treat [[Aryan race|Aryan]] patients and Jewish professors were not permitted to teach Aryan pupils. In addition, Jews were not allowed to use any form of public transportation, besides the ferry, and they were only allowed to shop in Jewish stores from 3–5 pm. After ''[[Kristallnacht]]'' ("The Night of Broken Glass"), the Jews were fined {{Reichsmark|1,000,000,000|link=yes}} for the damage which was done by Nazi troops and [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] members.

[[File:Lwow Ghetto (spring 1942).jpg|thumb|left|Women behind the barbed wire fence of the [[Lwów Ghetto]] in occupied Poland, Spring 1942]]

[[Jews]], [[Polish people|Poles]], and [[Romani people|Roma]] were subjected to [[genocide]] as "undesirable" racial groups in [[The Holocaust]]. The Nazis established [[Ghettos in occupied Europe 1939–1944|ghettos]] in order to confine Jews and sometimes, they confined Romas in tightly packed areas of the cities of [[Eastern Europe]], turning them into ''[[de facto]]'' [[concentration camp]]s. The [[Warsaw Ghetto]] was the largest of these ghettos, with 400,000 people. The [[Łódź Ghetto]] was the second largest, holding about 160,000.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 November 1939 |title=Holocaust Timeline: The Ghettos |url=http://fcit.usf.edu/HOLOCAUST/timeline/ghettos.htm |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=Fcit.usf.edu}}</ref>

Between 1939 and 1945, at least 1.5 million [[Poland|Polish]] citizens were transported to the Reich for [[forced labour]] (in all, about 12 million forced laborers were employed in the German war economy inside [[Nazi Germany]]).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Michael Marek |title=Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers |url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1757323,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810111755/https://www.dw.com/en/final-compensation-pending-for-former-nazi-forced-laborers/a-1757323 |archive-date=10 August 2015 |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=Dw-world.de}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Forced Labor at Ford Werke AG during the Second World War |url=http://summeroftruth.org/enemy/barracks.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014235036/http://summeroftruth.org/enemy/barracks.html |archive-date=14 October 2007 |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=Summeroftruth.org}}</ref> Although Nazi Germany also used forced laborers from Western Europe, [[Polish people|Poles]], along with other Eastern Europeans viewed as racially inferior,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hitler's Plans |url=http://www.dac.neu.edu/holocaust/Hitlers_Plans.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401234751/http://www.dac.neu.edu/holocaust/Hitlers_Plans.htm |archive-date=1 April 2010 |access-date=5 April 2016 |publisher=Dac.neu.edu}}</ref>  were subject to deeper discriminatory measures. They were forced to wear a yellow with purple border and letter "[[P (Nazi symbol)|P]]" (for Polen/Polish) cloth identifying tag sewn to their clothing, subjected to a [[curfew]], and banned from [[public transportation]].

While the treatment of factory workers or farm hands often varied depending on the individual employer, Polish laborers, as a rule, were compelled to work longer hours for lower wages than Western Europeans – in many cities, they were forced to live in segregated barracks behind barbed wire. Social relations with [[Germans]] outside work were forbidden, and sexual relations (''[[Rassenschande]]'' or "racial defilement") were punishable by death.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era |url=http://www.holocaust-trc.org/poles.htm |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=Holocaust-trc.org}}</ref>

=== Other countries ===
==== Canada ====
{{Main|Racial segregation in Canada}}
Racial segregation was widespread and deeply imbedded into the fabric of Canadian society prior to the Canadian constitution of 1982. Multiple court decisions, including one from the Supreme Court of Canada in 1939, upheld racial segregation as valid. The last black specifically segregated school closed in Ontario in 1965, while the last black specifically segregated school closed in Nova Scotia in 1983. The last racially segregated Indigenous school closed in 1996 in Saskatchewan.<ref name="ency">{{cite web |last1=Henry|first1=Natasha|title=Racial segregation of Black people in Canada |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/racial-segregation-of-black-people-in-canada|website=The Canadian Encyclopedia |access-date=21 Dec 2022}}</ref> 

Canada has had multiple white only neighbourhoods and cities, white only public spaces, stores, universities, hospitals, employment, restaurants, theatres, sports arenas and universities. Though the black population in Canada was significantly less than the black population in the United States, severe restrictions on black people existed in all forms, particularly in immigration, employment access and mobility. Unlike in the United States, racial segregation in Canada applied to all non-whites and was historically enforced through laws, court decisions and social norms with a closed immigration system that barred virtually all non-whites from immigrating until 1962. Section 38 of the 1910 Immigration Act permitted the government to prohibit the entry of immigrants "belonging to any race deemed unsuited to the climate or requirements of Canada, or of immigrants of any specified class, occupation or character."<ref name="ency"/>

Racial segregation practices extended to many areas of employment in Canada. Black men and women in Quebec were historically relegated to the service sector regardless of their educational attainment. White business owners and even provincial and federal government agencies often did not hire black people, with explicit rules preventing their employment. When the labour movement took hold in Canada near the end of the 19th century, workers began organizing and forming trade unions with the aim of improving the working conditions and quality of life for employees. However, black workers were systematically denied membership to these unions, and worker's protection was reserved exclusively for whites.<ref name="ency"/>

==== Germany ====
In fifteenth-century north-east Germany, people of [[Wends|Wend]]ish, i.e. [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]], origin were not allowed to join some [[guild]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Situation with the Sorbs in the Past and Present |url=http://www.ifl-leipzig.com/fileadmin/daten/downloads/DOWNLOADCENTER/Publikationen/internationale%20Zusammenfassungen%20Europa%20Regional/2002/Heft2/en.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713003632/http://www.ifl-leipzig.com/fileadmin/daten/downloads/DOWNLOADCENTER/Publikationen/internationale%20Zusammenfassungen%20Europa%20Regional/2002/Heft2/en.pdf | archive-date=13 July 2011 }}</ref> According to [[Wilhelm Raabe]], "down into the eighteenth century no German guild accepted a Wend."<ref>Raabe, p. 189.</ref>

==== South Africa ====
{{Main|Apartheid}}
[[File:DurbanSign1989.jpg|thumb|upright|left|"[[Apartheid]]": sign on Durban beach in English, [[Afrikaans]] and [[Zulu language|Zulu]], 1989]]
The [[apartheid]] system carried out by [[Afrikaner]] minority rule enacted a nationwide social policy "separate development" with the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] victory in the [[1948 South African general election|1948 general election]], following the "colour bar"-discriminatory legislation dating back to the beginning of the [[Union of South Africa]] and the [[Boer Republics|Boer republics]] before which, while repressive to Black South Africans along with other minorities, had not gone nearly so far.

Apartheid laws can be generally divided into following acts. Firstly, the [[Population Registration Act, 1950|Population Registration Act]] in 1950 classified residents in South Africa into four racial groups: "black", "white", "[[Coloured]]", and "Indian" and noted their racial identities on their identifications. Secondly, the [[Group Areas Act]] in 1950 assigned different regions according to different races. People were forced to live in their corresponding regions and the action of passing the boundaries without a permit was made illegal, extending pass laws that had already curtailed black movement. Thirdly, under the [[Reservation of Separate Amenities Act, 1953|Reservation of Separate Amenities Act]] in 1953, amenities in public areas, like hospitals, universities and parks, were labeled separately according to particular races. In addition, the [[Bantu Education Act, 1953|Bantu Education Act]] in 1953 segregated national education in South Africa as well. Additionally, the government of the time enforced the [[pass laws]], which deprived Black South Africans of their right to travel freely within their own country. Under this system Black South Africans were severely restricted from urban areas, requiring authorisation from a white employer to enter.

Uprisings and protests against apartheid appeared immediately when apartheid arose. As early as 1949, the [[African National Congress Youth League|Youth League]] of the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) advocated the ending of apartheid and suggested fighting against racial segregation by various methods. During the following decades, hundreds of anti-apartheid actions occurred, including those of the [[Black Consciousness Movement]], students' protests, labor strikes, and church group activism etc. In 1991, the [[Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act, 1991|Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act]] was passed, repealing laws enforcing racial segregation, including the Group Areas Act.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zimmermann |first=Reinhard |title=Southern Cross: Civil Law and Common Law in South Africa |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1996 |page=90}}</ref> In 1994, [[Nelson Mandela]] won in the first [[1994 South African general election|multiracial democratic election]] in South Africa. His success fulfilled the ending of apartheid in South African history.

==== United States ====
{{Main|Racial segregation in the United States}}
{{Further|African-American history|Racism against African Americans|Racism in the United States|Slavery in the United States|Reconstruction Era|Gilded Age|Black Codes (United States)|Jim Crow laws|Nadir of American race relations|Civil rights movement}}

In the United States, [[Racial segregation in the United States|racial segregation]] was mandated by law in some states (see [[Jim Crow laws]]) and enforced along with [[anti-miscegenation laws]] (prohibitions against [[interracial marriage]]), until the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] led by Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]] struck down racial segregation.<ref>E.g., Virginia [[Racial Integrity Act]], Virginia Code § 20–58 and § 20–59</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Court's Decision – Separate Is Not Equal |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/courts-decision.html |access-date=20 October 2019 |website=americanhistory.si.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Warren Court: Completion of a Constitutional Revolution |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/73968804.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003223936/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/73968804.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2019 |website=William & Mary Law School Scholarship Repository}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka |url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/347us483 |access-date=20 October 2019 |website=Oyez |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States |url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1964/515 |access-date=20 October 2019 |website=Oyez |language=en}}</ref>

[[Jim Crow laws]] were introduced after the passage of the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] abolishing [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]] in America, [[Racism in the United States|racial discrimination]]. The laws mandated strict segregation of the races. Though many of these laws were passed shortly after the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] ended, they only became formalized after the end of the [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction era]] in 1877. The period that followed the Reconstruction era is known as the [[nadir of American race relations]]. 

[[File:ColoredSailersRoomWWINOLA.jpg|thumb|left|Colored Sailors room in World War I]]

While the U.S. Supreme Court majority in the 1896 ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' case explicitly permitted "[[separate but equal]]" facilities (specifically, transportation facilities), Justice [[John Marshall Harlan]], in his [[dissenting opinion|dissent]], protested that the decision would "stimulate aggressions ... upon the admitted rights of colored citizens", "arouse race hate", and "perpetuate a feeling of distrust between [the] races. Feelings between Whites and Blacks were so tense, even the jails were segregated."<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Eric Foner |last2=Randall Kennedy |date=3 May 2004 |title=Brown at 50 |publisher=The Nation |url=http://www.thenation.com/doc/20040503/fonerkennedy |access-date=18 January 2010}}</ref>

Elected in 1912, President [[Presidency of Woodrow Wilson|Woodrow Wilson]] tolerated the extension of segregation throughout the federal government that was already underway.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=August Meier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/273560 |title=The Rise of Segregation in the Federal Bureaucracy, 1900–1930 |last2=Elliott Rudwick |work=Phylon |year=1967 |volume=28 |pages=178–184 |issue=2|publisher=Clark Atlanta University |doi=10.2307/273560 |jstor=273560 }}</ref>  In [[World War I]], Blacks were drafted and served in the [[United States Army]] in [[Military history of African Americans#World War I|segregated units]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mjagkij |first=Nina |url=https://public.ebookcentral.proquest.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=1021967 |title=Loyalty in time of trial: the African American experience during World War I |date=2011 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc |others=ProQuest (Firm) |series=African American history series |location=Lanham, Md |pages=106}}</ref> The U.S. military was still heavily segregated in World War II. The air force and the marines had no Blacks enlisted in their ranks. There were Blacks in the [[Seabee|Navy Seabees]]. The army had only five African-American officers.<ref name="fonerblack" /> In addition, no African-American would receive the [[Medal of Honor]] during the war, and their tasks in the war were largely reserved to noncombat units. Black soldiers had to sometimes give up their seats in trains to the [[German prisoners of war in the United States|Nazi prisoners of war]].<ref name="fonerblack">{{Cite book |last=Foner |first=Eric |title=Give Me Liberty!: An American History |date=1 February 2012 |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=978-0393935530 |edition=3 |page=696}}</ref>

A club which was central to the [[Harlem Renaissance]] in the 1920s, the [[Cotton Club]] in [[Harlem]], [[New York City]] was a whites-only establishment, where Blacks (such as [[Duke Ellington]]) were allowed to perform, but they were only allowed to perform in front of a white audience.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ella Fitzgerald |date=1989 |publisher=Holloway House Publishing |page=27}}</ref> In the reception to honor his success at the [[1936 Summer Olympics]], [[Jesse Owens]] was not permitted to enter through the main doors of the [[Waldorf Astoria New York]] and instead forced to travel up to the event in a [[freight elevator]].<ref name="schwartz">{{Cite web |last=Schwartz |first=Larry |year=2007 |title=Owens pierced a myth |url=http://espn.go.com/sportscentury/features/00016393.html}}</ref> The first black [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] recipient [[Hattie McDaniel]] was not permitted to attend the premiere of ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' at [[Loew's Grand Theatre]], [[Atlanta]], because of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia's]] segregation laws, and at the [[12th Academy Awards]] ceremony at the [[Ambassador Hotel (Los Angeles)|Ambassador Hotel]] in [[Los Angeles]] she was required to sit at a segregated table at the far wall of the room; the hotel had a no-blacks policy, but allowed McDaniel in as a favor.<ref name="LA segregation">{{Cite magazine |last=Abramovitch |first=Seth |date=19 February 2015 |title=Oscar's First Black Winner Accepted Her Honor in a Segregated 'No Blacks' Hotel in L.A. |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/features/oscars-first-black-winner-accepted-774335 |magazine=The Hollywood Reporter |access-date=10 August 2017}}</ref> Her final wish to be buried in [[Hollywood Forever Cemetery|Hollywood Cemetery]] was denied because the graveyard was restricted to Whites only.<ref name="LA segregation" />

On 11 September 1964, [[John Lennon]] announced [[the Beatles]] would not play to a segregated audience in [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]], [[Florida]].<ref name="Concert" /> City officials relented following this announcement.<ref name="Concert">{{Cite news |title=The Beatles banned segregated audiences, contract shows |work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-14963752 |access-date=17 July 2017}}</ref>  A contract for a 1965 Beatles concert at the [[Cow Palace]] in [[California]] specifies that the band "not be required to perform in front of a segregated audience".<ref name="Concert" />

[[Sports in the United States|American sports]] were racially segregated until the mid-twentieth century. In [[Baseball in the United States|baseball]], the "[[Negro league baseball|Negro leagues]]" were established by [[Rube Foster]] for non-white players, such as [[Negro league baseball]], which ran through the early 1950s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lanctot |first=Neil |title=Negro League Baseball: The Rise and Ruin of a Black Institution |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2008 |page=4}}</ref> In [[Basketball in the United States|basketball]], the [[Black Fives]] (all-black teams) were established in 1904, and emerged in [[New York City]], [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Chicago]], [[Pittsburgh]], [[Philadelphia]], and other cities. Racial segregation in basketball lasted until 1950 when the [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] became racially integrated.<ref>{{Cite news |title=How 'Black Fives' led to racial integration in basketball |work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-27215799 |access-date=21 August 2015}}</ref>

[[File:We want white tenants.jpg|thumb|left|White tenants seeking to prevent Blacks from moving into the housing project erected this sign. [[Detroit]], 1942.]]

Many U.S. states banned [[Interracial marriage in the United States|interracial marriage]], with the first [[Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States|anti-miscegenation law]] passed in [[Maryland]] in 1691.<ref>{{cite news |title=Interracial Marriage and the Law |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1965/10/interracial-marriage-and-the-law/660731/ |access-date=September 12, 2023 |work=The Atlantic}}</ref> While opposed to slavery in the U.S., in a speech in [[Charleston, Illinois]], in 1858, [[Abraham Lincoln]] stated, "I am not, nor ever have been in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races, that I am not, nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people. I as much as any man am in favor of the superior position assigned to the white race".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abraham Lincoln |title=Speeches and Writings 1832–1858: Speeches, Letters, and Miscellaneous Writings : the Lincoln-Douglas Debates |publisher=Library of America |year=1989 |volume=1 |page=638}}</ref> In 1958, Mildred Loving, a black woman, and Richard Loving, a white man, were sentenced to a year in prison in [[Virginia]] for marrying each other.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Walker |first=Dionne |date=10 June 2007 |title=Pioneer of interracial marriage looks back |agency=[[Associated Press]] |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-06-10-loving_N.htm |access-date=23 August 2015}}</ref> Their marriage violated the state's anti-miscegenation statute, the [[Racial Integrity Act of 1924]], which prohibited marriage between people classified as white and people classified as "[[colored]]" (persons of non-white ancestry).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Racial Integrity Act of 1924 |work=[[s:Racial Integrity Act of 1924|Full Text]] |via=Wikisource}}</ref> When former president [[Harry S. Truman]] was asked by a reporter in 1963 if interracial marriage would become widespread in the U.S., he responded, "I hope not; I don’t believe in it", before asking a question often aimed at anyone advocating racial integration, "Would you want your daughter to marry a Negro? She won't love someone who isn't her color."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wallenstein |first1=Peter |title=Tell the Court I Love My Wife: Race, Marriage, and Law--An American History |date=2004 |publisher=St. Martin's Publishing Group |page=185}}</ref> In the ''[[Loving v. Virginia]]'' case in 1967, the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] invalidated laws prohibiting interracial marriage in the U.S.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lawing |first=Charles B. |title=''Loving v. Virginia'' and the Hegemony of "Race" |url=http://www.charlielawing.com/modhist_lovingv.virginia.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704053526/http://www.charlielawing.com/modhist_lovingv.virginia.pdf |archive-date=4 July 2007 |access-date=23 August 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after being arrested for refusing to give up her seat for a white passenger on a segregated municipal bus in Montgomery, Alabama.jpg|thumb|[[Rosa Parks]] being fingerprinted after being arrested for not giving up her seat on the bus to a white person]]

Institutionalized racial segregation was ended as an official practice during the [[civil rights movement]] by the efforts of such civil rights activists as [[Clarence M. Mitchell Jr.]], [[Rosa Parks]], [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] and [[James Farmer]] working for social and political freedom during the period from the end of World War II through the [[Interstate Commerce Commission]] desegregation order of 1961, the passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|Civil Rights Act]] in 1964 and the [[Voting Rights Act]] in 1965 supported by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. Many of their efforts were acts of [[Nonviolence|non-violent]] [[civil disobedience]] aimed at disrupting the enforcement of racial segregation rules and laws, such as refusing to give up a seat in the black part of the bus to a white person (Rosa Parks), or holding [[sit-in]]s at all-white [[wikt:diner|diners]].

By 1968, all forms of segregation had been declared unconstitutional by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] under [[Chief Justice]] [[Earl Warren]], and by 1970 support for formal legal segregation had dissolved.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Court's Decision – Separate Is Not Equal |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/courts-decision.html |access-date=19 September 2019 |website=americanhistory.si.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Earl Warren, 83, Who Led High Court In Time of Vast Social Change, Is Dead |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0319.html |access-date=1 September 2019 |website=archive.nytimes.com}}</ref> The [[Warren Court]]'s decision on landmark case ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' of [[Topeka, Kansas]] in 1954 outlawed segregation in public schools, and its decision on ''[[Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States]]'' in 1964 prohibits racial segregation and discrimination in public institutions and [[Public accommodations in the United States|public accommodations]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Brown v. Board of Education |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/347/483 |access-date=19 September 2019 |website=LII / Legal Information Institute |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carter |first=Robert L. |date=1968 |title=The Warren Court and Desegregation |url=https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4901&context=mlr |journal=Michigan Law Review |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=237–248 |doi=10.2307/1287417 |jstor=1287417}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States |url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1964/515 |access-date=23 September 2019 |website=Oyez |language=en}}</ref> The [[Fair Housing Act]] of 1968, administered and enforced by the [[Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity]], prohibited discrimination in the sale and rental of housing on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, and disability. Formal racial discrimination became illegal in school systems, businesses, the American military, other civil services and the government. However, implicit racism continues to this day through avenues like [[occupational segregation]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=ALONSO-VILLAR |first1=OLGA |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-232x.2012.00674.x |title=The Extent of Occupational Segregation in the United States: Differences by Race, Ethnicity, and Gender |last2=DEL RIO |first2=CORAL |last3=GRADIN |first3=CARLOS |date=April 2012 |journal=Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society |volume=51 |pages=179–212 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-232x.2012.00674.x |issue=2 |s2cid=154675302}}</ref> In recent years, there has been a trend that reverses those efforts to desegregate schools made by those mandatory school desegregation orders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fiel |first1=Jeremy |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/703044 |title=With all deliberate speed: The reversal of court-ordered school desegregation, 1970–2013. |last2=Zhang |first2=Yongjun |date=2019 |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=124 |pages=1685–1719 |doi=10.1086/703044 |hdl=10150/633639 |hdl-access=free |issue=6 |s2cid=195572605}}</ref>