Pontius Pilate Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==Life and political career== ===Sources=== Sources on Pontius Pilate are limited, although modern scholars know more about him than about other [[Roman administration of Judaea (AD 6–135)|Roman governors of Judaea]].{{sfn|Carter|2003|p=12}} The most important sources are the ''Embassy to Gaius'' (after the year 41) by contemporary Jewish writer [[Philo]] of Alexandria,{{sfn|Demandt|2012|p=34|ps=. "Nach dem Tod des Caligula, unter Claudius, schrieb Philo seine 'Legatio'."}} the [[The Jewish War|''Jewish Wars'']] ({{circa|74}}) and ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' ({{circa|94}}) by the Jewish historian [[Josephus]], as well as the four canonical Christian [[gospel]]s, [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] (composed between 66 and 70), [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] (composed between 85 and 90), [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] (composed between 85 and 90), and [[Gospel of John|John]] (composed between 90 and 110);{{sfn|Carter|2003|p=12}} he is also mentioned in the [[Acts of the Apostles]] (composed between 85 and 90) and in the [[First Epistle to Timothy]] (written in the second half of the 1st century). [[Ignatius of Antioch]] mentions him in his epistles to the [[Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians|Trallians]], [[Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians|Magnesians]], and [[Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans|Smyrnaeans]]{{sfn|Bayes|2010|p=79}} (composed between 105 and 110).{{sfn|Trebilco|2007|p=631}} He is also briefly mentioned in ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' of the Roman historian [[Tacitus]] (early 2nd century), who simply says that he put Jesus to death.{{sfn|Carter|2003|p=12}} Two additional chapters of Tacitus's ''Annals'' that might have mentioned Pilate have been lost.{{sfn|Wroe|1999|p=xii}} The written sources provide only limited information, and each has its own biases, with the gospels in particular providing a theological rather than historical perspective on Pilate.{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=12–19}} Besides these texts, dated coins in the name of emperor Tiberius minted during Pilate's governorship have survived, as well as a fragmentary short inscription that names Pilate, known as the [[Pilate stone|Pilate Stone]], the only inscription about a Roman governor of Judaea predating the [[Jewish–Roman wars]] to survive.{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=12–13}}{{sfn|MacAdam|2001|p=75}}<ref>The Pilate Stone at the ''Inscriptions of Israel-Palestine'' project: https://library.brown.edu/iip/viewinscr/caes0043/ (2019)</ref> ===Early life=== The sources give no indication of Pilate's life prior to his becoming governor of Judaea.{{sfn|Lémonon|2007|p=121}} His [[praenomen]] (first name) is unknown;{{sfn|Lémonon|2007|p=16}} his [[cognomen]] ''Pilatus'' might mean "skilled with the javelin ({{Lang|la|[[pilum]]|italics=yes}})", but it could also refer to the {{Lang|la|[[Pileus (hat)|pileus]]|italics=yes}} or [[Phrygian cap]], possibly indicating that one of Pilate's ancestors was a [[Ancient Roman freedmen|freedman]].{{sfn|Demandt|2012|pp=47–48}} If it means "skilled with the javelin", it is possible that Pilate won the cognomen for himself while serving in the [[Military of ancient Rome|Roman military]];{{sfn|Lémonon|2007|p=121}} it is also possible that his father acquired the cognomen through military skill.{{sfn|Wroe|1999|p=16}} In the Gospels of Mark and John, Pilate is only called by his cognomen, which Marie-Joseph Ollivier takes to mean that this was the name by which he was generally known in common speech.{{sfn|Ollivier|1896|p=252}} The name [[Pontia gens|''Pontius'']] suggests that an ancestor of his came from [[Samnium]] in central, southern Italy, and he may have belonged to the family of [[Gavius Pontius]] and [[Pontius Telesinus]], two leaders of the [[Samnites]] in the third and first centuries BC, respectively, before their full incorporation to the [[Roman Republic]].{{sfn|Demandt|2012|pp=46–47}} Like all but one other governor of Judaea, Pilate was of the [[equites|equestrian order]], a middle rank of the Roman nobility.{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=9}} As one of the attested Pontii, [[Pontius Aquila]] (an assassin of [[Julius Caesar]]) was a [[tribune of the plebs]]; the family must have originally been of [[plebeian]] origin and later became ennobled as equestrians.{{sfn|Demandt|2012|pp=46–47}} Pilate was likely educated, somewhat wealthy, and well-connected politically and socially.{{sfn|Carter|2003|p=15}} He was probably married, but the only extant reference to [[Pontius Pilate's wife|his wife]], in which she tells him not to interact with Jesus after she has had a disturbing dream ([[Matthew 27]]:19), is generally dismissed as legendary.{{sfnm|1a1=Bond|1y=1998|1p=197|2a1=Demandt|2y=2012|2pp=76–77|3a1=Lémonon|3y=2007|3p=167}} According to the ''[[Tres militiae|cursus honorum]]'' established by [[Augustus]] for office holders of equestrian rank, Pilate would have had a military command before becoming prefect of Judaea; historian [[Alexander Demandt]] speculates that this could have been with a legion stationed at the [[Rhine]] or [[Danube]].{{sfn|Demandt|2012|p=48}} Although it is therefore likely Pilate served in the military, it is nevertheless not certain.{{sfn|Lémonon|2007|pp=121–122}} ===Role as governor of Judea === [[File:Judaea Roman Province.svg|thumb|Map of the province of Judaea during Pilate's governorship in the first century.]] Pilate was the fifth governor of the Roman province of Judaea, during the reign of the emperor [[Tiberius]]. The post of governor of Judaea was of relatively low prestige and nothing is known of how Pilate obtained the office.{{sfn|Schwartz|1992|p=398}} Josephus states that Pilate governed for ten years (''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' 18.4.2), and these are traditionally dated from 26 to 36/37, making him one of the two longest-serving governors of the province.{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=8}} As Tiberius had retired to the island of [[Capri]] in 26, scholars such as E. Stauffer have argued that Pilate may have actually been appointed by the powerful [[Praetorian Prefect]] [[Sejanus]], who was executed for treason in 31.{{sfn|Maier|1968|pp=8–9}} Other scholars have cast doubt on any link between Pilate and Sejanus.{{sfnm|1a1=McGing|1y=1991|1p=427|2a1=Carter|2y=2003|2p=4|3a1=Schwartz|3y=1992|3p=398}} [[Daniel R. Schwartz]] and Kenneth Lönnqvist both argue that the traditional dating of the beginning of Pilate's governorship is based on an error in Josephus; Schwartz argues that he was appointed instead in 19, while Lönnqvist argues for 17/18.{{sfn|Schwartz|1992|pp=396–397}}{{sfn|Lönnqvist|2000|p=67}} These proposed dates have not been widely accepted by other scholars.{{sfn|Lémonon|2007|p=122}} Pilate's title of prefect{{efn|Pilate's title as governor, as attested on the Pilate stone, is "[[Prefect#Ancient Rome|prefect]] of Judaea" ({{Lang|la|praefectus Iudaeae|italics=yes}}). His title is given as {{Lang|la|[[Procurator (Ancient Rome)|procurator]]|italics=yes}} in Tacitus, and with the Greek equivalent {{Transliteration|grc|epitropos|italics=yes}} ({{Lang|grc|ἐπίτροπος|italics=no}}) in Josephus and Philo.{{sfn|Schwartz|1992|p=397}} The title prefect was later changed to "procurator" under the emperor [[Claudius]], explaining why later sources give Pilate this title.{{sfn|Bond|1998|pp=11–12}} The [[New Testament]] uses the generic Greek term {{Transliteration|grc|[[Hegemony|hegemon]]|italics=yes}} ({{Lang|grc|ἡγεμών|italics=no}}), a term also applied to Pilate in Josephus.{{sfn|Schwartz|1992|p=397}}}} implies that his duties were primarily military;{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=11}} however, Pilate's troops were meant more as a police than a military force, and Pilate's duties extended beyond military matters.{{sfn|Schwartz|1992|p=197}} As Roman governor, he was head of the judicial system. He had the power to inflict [[capital punishment]], and was responsible for collecting tributes and taxes, and for disbursing funds, including the minting of coins.{{sfn|Schwartz|1992|p=197}} Because the Romans allowed a certain degree of local control, Pilate shared a limited amount of civil and religious power with the Jewish [[Sanhedrin]].{{sfn|Lémonon|2007|p=70}} Pilate was subordinate to the legate of [[Roman Syria|Syria]]; however, for the first six years in which he held office, Syria's legate [[Lucius Aelius Lamia (consul 3)|Lucius Aelius Lamia]] was absent from the region, something which [[Helen Bond]] believes may have presented difficulties to Pilate.{{sfn|Bond|1998|pp=5, 14–15}} He seems to have been free to govern the province as he wished, with intervention by the legate of Syria only coming at the end of his tenure, after the appointment of [[Lucius Vitellius (consul 34)|Lucius Vitellius]] to the post in 35.{{sfn|Schwartz|1992|p=398}} Like other Roman governors of Judaea, Pilate made his primary residence in [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], going to [[Jerusalem]] mainly for major feasts to maintain order.{{sfn|Bond|1998|pp=7–8}} He also would have toured around the province in order to hear cases and administer justice.{{sfn|Carter|2003|p=46}} As governor, Pilate had the right to appoint the Jewish [[High Priest of Israel|High Priest]] and also officially controlled the vestments of the High Priest in the [[Antonia Fortress]].{{sfn|Lémonon|2007|pp=86–88}} Unlike his predecessor, [[Valerius Gratus]], Pilate retained the same high priest, [[Caiaphas|Joseph ben Caiaphas]], for his entire tenure. Caiaphas would be removed following Pilate's own removal from the governorship.{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=19}} This indicates that Caiaphas and the priests of the [[Sadducees|Sadducee sect]] were reliable allies to Pilate.{{sfn|Carter|2003|p=48}} Moreover, Maier argues that Pilate could not have used the [[temple treasury]] to construct an [[Roman aqueduct|aqueduct]], as recorded by Josephus, without the cooperation of the priests.{{sfn|Maier|1971|p=364}} Similarly, Helen Bond argues that Pilate is depicted working closely with the Jewish authorities in the execution of Jesus.{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=89}} Jean-Pierre Lémonon argues that official cooperation with Pilate was limited to the Sadducees, noting that the [[Pharisees]] are absent from the gospel accounts of Jesus's arrest and trial.{{sfn|Lémonon|2007|p=172}} Daniel Schwartz takes the note in the [[Gospel of Luke]] ([[Luke 23]]:12) that Pilate had a difficult relationship with the Galilean Jewish king [[Herod Antipas]] as potentially historical. He also finds historical the information that their relationship mended following the execution of Jesus.{{sfn|Schwartz|1992|p=400}} Based on [[John 19]]:12, it is possible that Pilate held the title "friend of Caesar" ({{Lang-la|amicus Caesaris|italics=yes}}, {{Lang-grc|φίλος τοῦ Kαίσαρος|italics=no}}), a title also held by the Jewish kings [[Herod Agrippa I]] and [[Herod Agrippa II]] and by close advisors to the emperor. Both Daniel Schwartz and Alexander Demandt do not think this especially likely.{{sfn|Schwartz|1992|p=398}}{{sfn|Demandt|2012|pp=60–61}} ===Incidents with the Jews=== Various disturbances during Pilate's governorship are recorded in the sources. In some cases, it is unclear if they may be referring to the same event,{{sfn|Schwartz|1992|p=399}} and it is difficult to establish a chronology of events for Pilate's rule.{{sfn|MacAdam|2001|p=78}} Joan Taylor argues that Pilate had a policy of promoting the [[imperial cult of ancient Rome|imperial cult]], which may have caused some of the friction with his Jewish subjects.{{sfn|Taylor|2006}} Schwartz suggests that Pilate's entire tenure was characterized by "continued underlying tension between governor and governed, now and again breaking out in brief incidents."{{sfn|Schwartz|1992|p=399}} According to Josephus in his ''[[The Jewish War]]'' (2.9.2) and ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' (18.3.1), Pilate offended the Jews by moving imperial standards with the image of Caesar into Jerusalem. This resulted in a crowd of Jews surrounding Pilate's house in Caesarea for five days. Pilate then summoned them to an [[arena]], where the Roman soldiers drew their swords. But the Jews showed so little fear of death, that Pilate relented and removed the standards.{{sfn|Bond|1998|pp=52–53}} Bond argues that the fact that Josephus says that Pilate brought in the standards by night, shows that he knew that the images of the emperor would be offensive.{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=57}} She dates this incident to early in Pilate's tenure as governor.{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=79}} Daniel Schwartz and Alexander Demandt both suggest that this incident is in fact identical with "the incident with the shields" reported in Philo's ''Embassy to Gaius'', an identification first made by the early church historian [[Eusebius]].{{sfn|Demandt|2012|pp=53–55}}{{sfn|Schwartz|1992|p=399}} Lémonon, however, argues against this identification.{{sfn|Lémonon|2007|p=206}} According to Philo's ''Embassy to Gaius'' (''Embassy to Gaius'' 38), Pilate offended against [[Halakha|Jewish law]] by bringing golden shields into Jerusalem, and placing them on [[Herod's Palace (Jerusalem)|Herod's Palace]]. The sons of [[Herod the Great]] petitioned him to remove the shields, but Pilate refused. Herod's sons then threatened to petition the emperor, an action which Pilate feared would expose the crimes he had committed in office. He did not prevent their petition. Tiberius received the petition and angrily reprimanded Pilate, ordering him to remove the shields.{{sfn|Yonge|1855|pp=165–166}} Helen Bond, Daniel Schwartz, and [[Warren Carter]] argue that Philo's portrayal is largely stereotyped and rhetorical, portraying Pilate with the same words as other opponents of Jewish law, while portraying Tiberius as just and supportive of Jewish law.{{sfnm|1a1=Bond|1y=1998|1pp=36–37|2a1=Carter|2y=2003|2pp=15–16|3a1=Schwartz|3y=1992|3p=399}} It is unclear why the shields offended against Jewish law: it is likely that they contained an inscription referring to Tiberius as {{lang|la|divi Augusti filius|italics=yes}} (son of divine Augustus).{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=39}}{{sfn|Demandt|2012|pp=51–52}} Bond dates the incident to 31, sometime after Sejanus's death in 17 October.{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=46}} In another incident recorded in both the ''Jewish Wars'' (2.9.4) and the ''Antiquities of the Jews'' (18.3.2), Josephus relates that Pilate offended the Jews by using up the [[temple treasury]] ({{lang|grc|korbanos|italics=yes}}) to pay for a new aqueduct to Jerusalem. When a mob formed while Pilate was visiting Jerusalem, Pilate ordered his troops to beat them with clubs; many perished from the blows or from being trampled by horses, and the mob was dispersed.{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=53}} The dating of the incident is unknown, but Bond argues that it must have occurred between 26 and 30 or 33, based on Josephus's chronology.{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=89}} The Gospel of Luke mentions in passing Galileans "whose blood Pilate had mingled with their sacrifices" ([[Luke 13]]:1). This reference has been variously interpreted as referring to one of the incidents recorded by Josephus, or to an entirely unknown incident.{{sfn|Bond|1998|pp=194–195}} Bond argues that the number of Galileans killed does not seem to have been particularly high. In Bond's view, the reference to "sacrifices" likely means that this incident occurred at [[Passover]] at some unknown date.{{sfn|Bond|1998|pp=195–196}} She argues that "[i]t is not only possible but quite likely that Pilate's governorship contained many such brief outbreaks of trouble about which we know nothing. The insurrection in which [[Barabbas]] was caught up, if historical, may well be another example."{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=196}} ===Trial and execution of Jesus=== {{see also|Pilate's court|Crucifixion of Jesus}} [[File:Christus bij Pilatus.jpg|thumb|Print of Christus with Pontius Pilate. Made in the 16th century.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Christus bij Pilatus|url=https://lib.ugent.be/viewer/archive.ugent.be:32226244-A6A8-11E6-B1A4-293ED43445F2#?c=&m=&s=&cv=&xywh=-1651,-232,6212,4626|access-date=2020-10-02|website=lib.ugent.be}}</ref>]] At the [[Passover]] of most likely 30 or 33, Pontius Pilate condemned [[Jesus]] of Nazareth to death by [[crucifixion]] in Jerusalem.{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=201}} The main sources on the crucifixion are the four canonical Christian [[Gospel]]s, the accounts of which vary.{{sfn|Hourihane|2009|pp=22–23}} Helen Bond argues that <blockquote>the evangelists' portrayals of Pilate have been shaped to a great extent by their own particular theological and apologetic concerns. [...] Legendary or theological additions have also been made to the narrative [...] Despite extensive differences, however, there is a certain agreement amongst the evangelists regarding the basic facts, an agreement which may well go beyond literary dependency and reflect actual historical events.{{sfn|Bond|1998|pp=196–167}}</blockquote> Pilate's role in condemning Jesus to death is also attested by the Roman historian [[Tacitus on Christ|Tacitus]], who, when explaining [[Nero]]'s persecution of the Christians, explains: "Christus, the founder of the name, had undergone the death penalty in the reign of Tiberius, by sentence of the procurator Pontius Pilate, and the pernicious [[superstition]] was checked for a moment..." (Tacitus, ''Annals'' 15.44).{{sfn|Carter|2003|p=12}}{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=xi}} Josephus also [[Josephus on Jesus|mentioned Jesus]]'s execution by Pilate at the request of prominent Jews (''Antiquities of the Jews'' 18.3.3); the text may have been altered by [[Christian interpolation]], but the reference to the execution is generally considered authentic.<ref name="autogenerated145">{{cite book|last=Crossan|first=John Dominic|title=Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography|publisher=HarperOne|year=1995|isbn=978-0-06-061662-5|page=145|quote=That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus ... agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact.}}</ref> Discussing the paucity of extra-biblical mentions of the crucifixion, Alexander Demandt argues that the execution of Jesus was probably not seen as a particularly important event by the Romans, as many other people were crucified at the time and forgotten.{{sfn|Demandt|2012|pp=44–45}} In [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]]'s epistles [[Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians|to the Trallians]] (9.1) and [[Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans|to the Smyrnaeans]] (1.2), the author attributes Jesus's persecution under Pilate's governorship. Ignatius further dates Jesus's birth, passion, and resurrection during Pilate's governorship in his [[Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians|epistle to the Magnesians]] (11.1). Ignatius stresses all these events in his epistles as historical facts.{{sfn|Bayes|2010|p=79}} Bond argues that Jesus's arrest was made with Pilate's prior knowledge and involvement, based on the presence of a 500-strong Roman cohort among the party that arrests Jesus in John 18:3.{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=197}} Demandt dismisses the notion that Pilate was involved.{{sfn|Demandt|2012|pp=70–71}} It is generally assumed, based on the unanimous testimony of the gospels, that the crime for which Jesus was brought to Pilate and executed was sedition, founded on his claim to be [[Kings of Israel and Judah|king of the Jews]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bond|1y=1998|1pp=197–198|2a1=Lémonon|2y=2007|2p=172|3a1=Demandt|3y=2012|3p=74}} Pilate may have judged Jesus according to the ''[[Roman litigation#Cognitio|cognitio]]'' {{lang|la|extra ordinem|italics=yes}}, a form of trial for [[capital punishment]] used in the Roman provinces and applied to [[Roman citizenship|non-Roman citizens]] that provided the prefect with greater flexibility in handling the case.{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=198}}{{sfn|Lémonon|2007|pp=172–173}} All four gospels also mention that Pilate had the custom of releasing one captive in honor of the [[Passover]] festival; this custom is not attested in any other source. Historians disagree on whether or not such a custom is a fictional element of the gospels, reflects historical reality, or perhaps represents a single [[amnesty]] in the year of Jesus's crucifixion.{{sfnm|1a1=Bond|1y=1998|1pp=199|2a1=Lémonon|2y=2007|2pp=173–176|3a1=Demandt|3y=2012|3pp=75–76}} [[File:Munkacsy - Christ in front of Pilate.jpg|thumb|left|''Christ before Pilate'', [[Mihály Munkácsy]], 1881]] The Gospels' portrayal of Pilate is "widely assumed" to diverge greatly from that found in Josephus and Philo,{{sfn|McGing|1991|p=417}} as Pilate is portrayed as reluctant to execute Jesus and pressured to do so by the crowd and Jewish authorities. [[John P. Meier]] notes that in Josephus, by contrast, "Pilate alone [...] is said to condemn Jesus to the cross."{{sfn|Meier|1990|p=95}} Some scholars believe that the Gospel accounts are completely untrustworthy: [[S. G. F. Brandon]] argued that in reality, rather than vacillating on condemning Jesus, Pilate unhesitatingly executed him as a rebel.{{sfn|McGing|1991|pp=417–418}} [[Paul Winter (author)|Paul Winter]] explained the discrepancy between Pilate in other sources and Pilate in the gospels by arguing that Christians became more and more eager to portray Pontius Pilate as a witness to Jesus' innocence, as persecution of Christians by the Roman authorities increased.{{sfn|Winter|1974|pp=85–86}} [[Bart Ehrman]] argues that the [[Gospel of Mark]], the earliest one, shows the Jews and Pilate to be in agreement about executing Jesus (Mark 15:15), while the later gospels progressively reduce Pilate's culpability, culminating in Pilate allowing the Jews to crucify Jesus in John (John 19:16). He connects this change to increased "anti-Judaism."{{sfn|Ehrman|2003|pp=20–21}} [[Raymond E. Brown]] argued that the Gospels' portrayal of Pilate cannot be considered historical, since Pilate is always described in other sources (''[[The Jewish War]]'' and ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' of [[Josephus]] and ''Embassy to Gaius'' of [[Philo]]) as a cruel and obstinate man. Brown also rejects the historicity of Pilate washing his hands and of the [[blood curse]], arguing that these narratives, which only appear in the [[Gospel of Matthew]], reflect later contrasts between the [[Jews]] and [[Jewish Christian]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brown|first=Raymond E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3-oNIgAACAAJ|title=The Death of the Messiah|date=2008|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-14009-5|pages=753, 833|language=en}}</ref> Others have tried to explain Pilate's behavior in the Gospels as motivated by a change of circumstances from that shown in Josephus and Philo, usually presupposing a connection between Pilate's caution and the death of Sejanus.{{sfn|McGing|1991|p=417}} Yet other scholars, such as [[Brian McGing]] and Bond, have argued that there is no real discrepancy between Pilate's behavior in Josephus and Philo and that in the Gospels.{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=201}}{{sfn|McGing|1991|pp=435–436}} [[Warren Carter]] argues that Pilate is portrayed as skillful, competent, and manipulative of the crowd in Mark, Matthew, and John, only finding Jesus innocent and executing him under pressure in Luke.{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=153–154}} [[N. T. Wright]] and [[Craig A. Evans]] argue that Pilate's hesitation was due to the fear of causing a revolt during [[Passover]], when large numbers of pilgrims were in [[Jerusalem]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Evans|first1=Craig A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q12p2RgwWUYC&q=pilate|title=Jesus, the Final Days: What Really Happened|last2=Wright|first2=Nicholas Thomas|date=2009-01-01|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-23359-4|pages=20|language=en}}</ref> ===Removal and later life=== According to Josephus' ''Antiquities of the Jews'' (18.4.1–2), Pilate's removal as governor occurred after Pilate slaughtered a group of armed [[Samaritans]] at a village called Tirathana near [[Mount Gerizim]], where they hoped to find artifacts that had been buried there by [[Moses]]. Alexander Demandt suggests that the leader of this movement may have been [[Dositheos (Samaritan)|Dositheos]], a [[messiah]]-like figure among the Samaritans who was known to have been active around this time.{{sfn|Demandt|2012|p=63}} The Samaritans, claiming not to have been armed, complained to [[Lucius Vitellius the Elder]], the [[List of Roman governors of Syria|governor of Syria]] (term 35–39), who had Pilate recalled to Rome to be judged by Tiberius. Tiberius, however, had died before his arrival.{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=67}} This dates the end of Pilate's governorship to 36/37. Tiberius died in [[Misenum]] on 16 March in 37, in his seventy-eighth year (Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 6#50|VI.50]], [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 6#51|VI.51]]).<ref>Karen Cokayne, Experiencing Old Age in Ancient Rome, p.100</ref> Following Tiberius's death, Pilate's hearing would have been handled by the new emperor [[Caligula]]: it is unclear whether any hearing took place, as new emperors often dismissed outstanding legal matters from previous reigns.{{sfn|Maier|1971|pp=366–367}} The only sure outcome of Pilate's return to Rome is that he was not reinstated as governor of Judaea, either because the hearing went badly, or because Pilate did not wish to return.{{sfn|Maier|1971|p=367}} J. P. Lémonon argues that the fact that Pilate was not reinstated by Caligula does not mean that his trial went badly, but may simply have been because after ten years in the position it was time for him to take a new posting.{{sfn|Bond|1998|pp=92–93}} Joan Taylor, on the other hand, argues that Pilate seems to have ended his career in disgrace, using his unflattering portrayal in Philo, written only a few years after his dismissal, as proof.{{sfn|Taylor|2006|p=577}} [[File:A remorseful Pilate prepares to kill himself. Engraving by G Wellcome V0034470.jpg|thumb|A remorseful Pilate prepares to kill himself. Engraving by G. Mochetti after B. Pinelli, early 19th century.]] The church historian [[Eusebius]] ([[Church History (Eusebius)|''Church History'']] 2.7.1), writing in the early fourth century, claims that "tradition relates that" Pilate committed suicide after he was recalled to Rome due to the disgrace he was in.{{sfn|Maier|1971|p=369}} Eusebius dates this to 39.{{sfn|Demandt|2012|p=92}} Paul Maier notes that no other surviving records corroborate Pilate's suicide, which is meant to document God's wrath for Pilate's role in the crucifixion, and that Eusebius explicitly states that "tradition" is his source, "indicating that he had trouble documenting Pilate's presumed suicide".{{sfn|Maier|1971|p=369}} Daniel Schwartz, however, argues that Eusebius's claims "should not lightly be dismissed."{{sfn|Schwartz|1992|p=400}} More information on the potential fate of Pontius Pilate can be gleaned from other sources. The second-century pagan philosopher [[Celsus]] polemically asked why, if Jesus was God, God had not punished Pilate, indicating that he did not believe that Pilate shamefully committed suicide. Responding to Celsus, the Christian apologist [[Origen]], writing {{circa|248 AD}}, argued that nothing bad happened to Pilate, because the Jews and not Pilate were responsible for Jesus' death; he therefore also assumed that Pilate did not die a shameful death.{{sfn|Maier|1971|p=370}}{{sfn|Grüll|2010|pp=154–155}} Pilate's supposed suicide is also left unmentioned in Josephus, Philo, and Tacitus.{{sfn|Maier|1971|p=370}} Maier argues that "[i]n all probability, then, the fate of Pontius Pilate lay clearly in the direction of a retired government official, a pensioned Roman ex-magistrate, than in anything more disastrous."{{sfn|Maier|1971|p=371}} Taylor notes that Philo discusses Pilate as though he were already dead in the ''Embassy to Gaius'', although he is writing only a few years after Pilate's tenure as governor.{{sfn|Taylor|2006|p=578}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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