Personality

==Measuring==
Personality can be determined through a variety of tests. Due to the fact that personality is a complex idea, the dimensions of personality and scales of such tests vary and often are poorly defined. Two main tools to measure personality are [[objective test]]s and projective measures. Examples of such tests are the: [[Big Five personality traits|Big Five Inventory]] (BFI), [[Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory]] (MMPI-2), [[Rorschach test|Rorschach Inkblot test]], [[Neurotic Personality Questionnaire KON-2006]],<ref><span lang="PL">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Aleksandrowicz JW, Klasa K, Sobański JA, Stolarska D |year=2009 |title=KON-2006 Neurotic Personality Questionnaire |url=http://www.archivespp.pl/uploads/images/2009_11_1/21_p_Archives_1_09.pdf |journal=Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy |volume=1 |pages=21–22}}</span></ref> or [[Hans Eysenck|Eysenck's]] Personality Questionnaire (EPQ-R). All of these tests are beneficial because they have both [[reliability (research methods)|reliability]] and [[Test validity|validity]], two factors that make a test accurate. "Each item should be influenced to a degree by the underlying trait construct, giving rise to a pattern of positive intercorrelations so long as all items are oriented (worded) in the same direction."<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hogan |first1=Joyce |title=Handbook of Personality Psychology |last2=Ones |first2=Deniz S. |year=1997 |isbn=9780121346454 |pages=849–870 |chapter=Conscientiousness and Integrity at Work |doi=10.1016/b978-012134645-4/50033-0}}</ref> A recent, but not well-known, measuring tool that psychologists use is the [[16PF Questionnaire|16PF]]. It measures personality based on Cattell's 16-factor theory of personality. Psychologists also use it as a clinical measuring tool to diagnose psychiatric disorders and help with prognosis and therapy planning.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Denis |first=McKim |title=Boundless dominion : providence, politics, and the early Canadian presbyterian worldview |date=2017-11-30 |isbn=978-0-7735-5240-1 |location=Montreal |oclc=1015239877}}{{pn|date=December 2019}}</ref> 

Personality is frequently broken into factors or dimensions, statistically extracted from large questionnaires through [[factor analysis]]. When brought back to two dimensions, often the dimensions of introvert-extrovert and neuroticism (emotionally unstable-stable) are used as first proposed by Eysenck in the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eysenck |first=Hans Jurgen |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/61178246 |title=The biological basis of personality |date=2006 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=1-4128-0554-6 |oclc=61178246}}</ref>

===Five-factor inventory===
[[File:Wiki-grafik peats-de big five ENG.svg|thumb|The [[Big Five personality traits]]]]
Many factor analyses found what is called the [[Big Five personality traits|Big Five]], which are [[openness to experience]], [[conscientiousness]], [[Extraversion and introversion|extraversion]], [[agreeableness]], and [[neuroticism]] (or emotional stability), known as "OCEAN". These components are generally stable over time, and about half of the variance appears to be attributable to a person's genetics rather than the effects of one's environment.<ref name="Lucas & Baird" /><ref name="Briley2014">{{Cite journal |last1=Briley |first1=Daniel A. |last2=Tucker-Drob |first2=Elliot M. |date=2014 |title=Genetic and environmental continuity in personality development: A meta-analysis |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=140 |issue=5 |pages=1303–1331 |doi=10.1037/a0037091 |pmc=4152379 |pmid=24956122}}</ref> These five factors are made up of two aspects each as well as many facets (e.g., openness splits into experiencing and intellect, which each further split into facets like fantasy and ideas).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=DeYoung |first1=Colin G. |last2=Quilty |first2=Lena C. |last3=Peterson |first3=Jordan B. |date=2007 |title=Between facets and domains: 10 aspects of the Big Five. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.880 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=93 |issue=5 |pages=880–896 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.880 |pmid=17983306 |s2cid=8261816 |issn=1939-1315}}</ref> These five factors also show correlations with each other that suggest higher order meta-traits (e.g., factor beta, which combines openness and extraversion to form a meta-trait associated with mental and physical exploration).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Markon |first1=Kristian E. |last2=Krueger |first2=Robert F. |last3=Watson |first3=David |date=2005 |title=Delineating the Structure of Normal and Abnormal Personality: An Integrative Hierarchical Approach. |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=139–157 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.139 |issn=1939-1315 |pmc=2242353 |pmid=15631580}}</ref> There are several personality frameworks that recognize the Big Five factors and there are thousands of measures of personality that can be used to measure specific facets as well as general traits.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Stanek |first1=Kevin C. |title=Taxonomies and Compendia of Cognitive Ability and Personality Constructs and Measures Relevant to Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology |date=2018 |url=http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-sage-handbook-of-industrial-work-and-org-psychology-vol1/i3345.xml |work=The SAGE Handbook of Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology: Personnel Psychology and Employee Performance |pages=366–407 |access-date=2024-01-08 |place=1 Oliver's Yard, 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP |publisher=SAGE Publications Ltd |doi=10.4135/9781473914940.n14 |isbn=978-1-4462-0721-5 |last2=Ones |first2=Deniz S.}}</ref>

Some research has investigated whether the relationship between happiness and extraversion seen in adults also can be seen in children. The implications of these findings can help identify children who are more likely to experience episodes of depression and develop types of treatment that such children are likely to respond to. In both children and adults, research shows that genetics, as opposed to environmental factors, exert a greater influence on happiness levels. Personality is not stable over the course of a lifetime, but it changes much more quickly during childhood, so personality constructs in children are referred to as temperament. Temperament is regarded as the precursor to personality.<ref name="Holder & Klassen">{{Cite journal |last1=Holder |first1=Mark D. |last2=Klassen |first2=Andrea |date=13 June 2009 |title=Temperament and Happiness in Children |journal=Journal of Happiness Studies |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=419–439 |doi=10.1007/s10902-009-9149-2|s2cid=145541419 }}</ref>

Another interesting finding has been the link found between acting [[extraverted]] and positive affect. Extraverted behaviors include acting talkative, assertive, adventurous, and outgoing. For the purposes of this study, positive affect is defined as experiences of happy and enjoyable emotions.<ref name="Zelenski, Santoro, & Whelan">{{Cite journal |last1=Zelenski |first1=John M. |last2=Santoro |first2=Maya S. |last3=Whelan |first3=Deanna C. |date=2012 |title=Would introverts be better off if they acted more like extraverts? Exploring emotional and cognitive consequences of counter-dispositional behavior |journal=Emotion |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=290–303 |doi=10.1037/a0025169 |pmid=21859197}}</ref> This study investigated the effects of acting in a way that is counter to a person's dispositional nature. In other words, the study focused on the benefits and drawbacks of introverts (people who are shy, socially inhibited, and non-aggressive) acting extraverted, and of extraverts acting introverted. After acting extraverted, introverts' experience of positive affect increased<ref name="Zelenski, Santoro, & Whelan" /> whereas extraverts seemed to experience lower levels of positive affect and suffered from the phenomenon of ego depletion. [[Ego depletion]], or cognitive fatigue, is the use of one's energy to overtly act in a way that is contrary to one's inner disposition. When people act in a contrary fashion, they divert most, if not all, (cognitive) energy toward regulating this foreign style of behavior and attitudes. Because all available energy is being used to maintain this contrary behavior, the result is an inability to use any energy to make important or difficult decisions, plan for the future, control or regulate emotions, or perform effectively on other cognitive tasks.<ref name="Zelenski, Santoro, & Whelan" />

One question that has been posed is why extraverts tend to be happier than introverts. The two types of explanations that attempt to account for this difference are instrumental theories and temperamental theories.<ref name="Lucas & Baird">{{Cite journal |last1=Lucas |first1=Richard E. |last2=Baird |first2=Brendan M. |date=2004 |title=Extraversion and Emotional Reactivity. |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=86 |issue=3 |pages=473–485 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.86.3.473 |pmid=15008650}}</ref> The instrumental theory suggests that extraverts end up making choices that place them in more positive situations and they also react more strongly than introverts to positive situations. The temperamental theory suggests that extroverts have a disposition that generally leads them to experience a higher degree of positive affect. In their study of extraversion, Lucas and Baird<ref name="Lucas & Baird" /> found no statistically significant support for the instrumental theory but did, however, find that extraverts generally experience a higher level of positive affect.

Research has been done to uncover some of the mediators that are responsible for the correlation between extraversion and happiness. ''Self-esteem'' and ''[[self-efficacy]]'' are two such mediators.

Self-efficacy is one's belief about abilities to perform up to personal standards, the ability to produce desired results, and the feeling of having some ability to make important life decisions.<ref name="Strobel et al" /> Self-efficacy has been found to be related to the personality traits of extraversion and subjective well-being.<ref name="Strobel et al">{{Cite journal |last1=Strobel |first1=Maria |last2=Tumasjan |first2=Andranik |last3=Spörrle |first3=Matthias |date=February 2011 |title=Be yourself, believe in yourself, and be happy: Self-efficacy as a mediator between personality factors and subjective well-being |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Psychology |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=43–48 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9450.2010.00826.x |pmid=20497398|s2cid=44632456 }}</ref>

Self-efficacy, however, only partially mediates the relationship between extraversion (and neuroticism) and subjective happiness.<ref name="Strobel et al" /> This implies that there are most likely other factors that mediate the relationship between subjective happiness and personality traits. ''Self-esteem'' maybe another similar factor. Individuals with a greater degree of confidence about themselves and their abilities seem to have both higher degrees of subjective well-being and higher levels of extraversion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Joshanloo |first1=Mohsen |last2=Afshari |first2=Samaneh |date=26 November 2009 |title=Big Five Personality Traits and Self-Esteem as Predictors of Life Satisfaction in Iranian Muslim University Students |journal=Journal of Happiness Studies |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=105–113 |doi=10.1007/s10902-009-9177-y|s2cid=144459533 }}</ref>

Other research has examined the phenomenon of ''mood maintenance'' as another possible mediator. ''Mood maintenance'' is the ability to maintain one's average level of happiness in the face of an ambiguous situation – meaning a situation that has the potential to engender either positive or negative emotions in different individuals. It has been found to be a stronger force in extroverts.<ref name="Lischetzke & Eid">{{Cite journal |last1=Lischetzke |first1=Tanja |last2=Eid |first2=Michael |date=August 2006 |title=Why Extraverts Are Happier Than Introverts: The Role of Mood Regulation |journal=Journal of Personality |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=1127–1162 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00405.x |pmid=16787431}}</ref> This means that the happiness levels of extraverted individuals are less susceptible to the influence of external events. This finding implies that extraverts' positive moods last longer than those of introverts.<ref name="Lischetzke & Eid" />