Perfume

==History==
{{main|History of perfume}}
[[File:Lily perfume Louvre E11162.jpg|thumbnail|left|Egyptian scene depicting the preparation of lily perfume, 4th century BC]]

The word ''perfume'' is derived from the Latin ''perfumare'', meaning "to smoke through".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/perfume|title=perfume|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary|access-date=2020-10-11|archive-date=29 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929083743/https://www.etymonline.com/word/perfume|url-status=live}}</ref> Perfumery, as the art of making perfumes, began in ancient [[Mesopotamia]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], the [[Indus Valley civilization]] and possibly [[Ancient China]].<ref>{{Cite journal|date=November 20, 2015|title=Scented Oils and Perfumes|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/bk-2015-1211.ch008|journal=American Chemical Society|series=ACS Symposium Series|doi=10.1021/bk-2015-1211.ch008|last1=Balasubramanian|first1=Narayanaganesh|volume=1211|pages=219–244|isbn=9780841231122|access-date=23 May 2021|archive-date=18 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818083846/https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/bk-2015-1211.ch008|url-status=live}}</ref> It was further refined by the [[ancient Rome|Romans]] and the Muslims.{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}}

One of the world's first-recorded [[chemist|chemists]] is considered to be a woman named [[Tapputi]], a perfume maker mentioned in a [[cuneiform]] tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia.<ref>{{cite book|author= Strathern, Paul |title= Mendeleyev's Dream – The Quest For the Elements|location= New York | publisher= Berkley Books|year= 2000|isbn= 0-425-18467-6}}</ref> She distilled flowers, oil, and [[Acorus calamus|calamus]] with other [[aroma compound|aromatic]]s, then filtered and put them back in the still several times.<ref>{{cite book|last= Levey|first=Martin|title= Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction Based on Ancient and Medieval Sources|publisher= Brill Archive|year=1973|page= 9|isbn= 90-04-03796-9}}</ref>

On the [[Indian subcontinent]], perfume and perfumery existed in the [[Indus civilization]] (3300 BC – 1300 BC).<ref>{{cite book|title= Agriculture Diversification: Problems and Perspectives|author1= A.K. Sharma|author2= Seema Wahad|author3= Raśmī Śrīvāstava|page=140|publisher= I. K. International Pvt Ltd|year= 2010}}</ref>

[[File:Arheologicheski-Perfume.jpg|thumb|200px|A Byzantine [[alembic]] used to distill perfumes]]
[[File:Perfume vessel in shape of a monkey MET DP228710.jpg|thumb|upright|Ancient Egyptian perfume vessel in shape of a monkey; 1550-1295 BC; faience; height: 6.5 cm, width: 3.3 cm, depth: 3.8 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)]]
In 2003,<ref name="NG070329">{{cite web | last = Roach | first = John | title = Oldest Perfumes Found on "Aphrodite's Island" | date = 29 March 2007 | url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/03/070329-oldest-perfumes.html | access-date = 21 June 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131012103328/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/pf/4419999.html | archive-date = 12 October 2013}}</ref> archaeologists uncovered what are believed{{by whom|date=July 2015}} to be the world's oldest surviving perfumes in [[Pyrgos, Limassol|Pyrgos]], [[Cyprus]]. The perfumes dated back more than 4,000 years. They were discovered in an ancient perfumery, a {{convert|3230|sqft|m2|-2|adj=on|order=flip|sp=us}} factory<ref name=NG070329/> housing at least 60 stills, mixing bowls, funnels, and perfume bottles. In ancient times people used [[herb]]s and [[spice]]s, such as [[almond]], [[coriander]], [[Myrtus communis|myrtle]], [[conifer|conifer resin]], and [[bergamot orange|bergamot]], as well as [[flowers]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,261631,00.html?sPage=fnc.science/archaeology|title=Ancient Perfumes Recreated, Put on Display in Rome|work=Fox News|access-date=16 April 2007|archive-date=23 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023191805/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,261631,00.html?sPage=fnc.science%2Farchaeology|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2018, an ancient perfume "Rodo" (Rose) was recreated for the Greek National Archaeological Museum's anniversary show "Countless Aspects of Beauty", allowing visitors to approach antiquity through their olfaction receptors.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/229202/article/ekathimerini/life/ancient-perfume-recreated-for-anniversary-show|title=Ancient perfume recreated for anniversary show|last=Elis|first=Kiss|date=2 June 2018|work=Kathimerini English Edition|access-date=6 June 2018|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126161258/https://www.ekathimerini.com/229202/article/ekathimerini/life/ancient-perfume-recreated-for-anniversary-show|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the 9th century the [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Arab chemist]] [[Al-Kindi]] (Alkindus) wrote the ''Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations'', which contained more than a hundred recipes for fragrant [[oils]], [[Salve|salves]], aromatic waters, and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs. The book also described 107 methods and recipes for perfume-making and perfume-making equipment, such as the [[alembic]] (which still bears its Arabic name.<ref>al-Hassani, Woodcok and Saoud (2006) 1001 Inventions; Muslim Heritage in Our World, FSTC, p.22.</ref><ref>{{citation | author= M. Ullmann | contribution=AL-KĪMIYĀ | title= The Encyclopaedia of Islam | edition= 2nd | volume=5 | publisher=Brill | year=1986 | page= 111b| title-link=The Encyclopaedia of Islam }}</ref> [from [[Greek language|Greek]] ἄμβιξ, "cup", "beaker"]<ref>{{citation | author= E. Wiedemann | author2=M. Plessner | contribution=AL-ANBĪḲ | title= The Encyclopaedia of Islam | edition=2nd | volume=1 | publisher=Brill | year=1986 | page=486a| author-link=Eilhard Wiedemann | title-link=The Encyclopaedia of Islam }}</ref><ref>{{citation | editor= Henry George Liddell | editor2=Robert Scott | contribution=ἄμβιξ | title= Greek-English Lexicon | edition=8th | publisher=Harper & Brothers | year=1897 | page=73 | contribution-url=https://archive.org/details/greekenglishlex00lidduoft| title-link=Greek-English Lexicon }}</ref> described by [[Synesius]] in the 4th century<ref>{{citation | author= Marcellin Berthelot | title= Introduction à l'étude de la chimie des anciens et du moyen âge | publisher= Steinheil | year= 1889 | page= 164 | url= http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3815b | author-link= Marcellin Berthelot | access-date= 13 October 2014 | archive-date= 23 November 2020 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201123124116/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3815b | url-status= live }}</ref>).

The Persian chemist Ibn Sina (also known as [[Avicenna]]) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of [[distillation]], the procedure most commonly used today. He first experimented with the [[rose]]. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes consisted of mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, which made a strong blend. [[Rose water]] was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both the raw ingredients and the distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly [[chemistry]].

There is a controversy on whether perfumery was completely lost in [[Western Europe]] after the [[Fall of Rome|fall]] of the [[Western Roman Empire]]. That said, the art of perfumery in Western Europe was reinvigorated after the Islamic [[Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula|invasion of Spain]] and [[Islamic Italy|Southern Italy]] in 711 and 827.  The Islamic controlled cities of Spain ([[Al-Andalus]]) became major producers of perfumes that were traded throughout the [[Old World]]. Like in the ancient world, [[Andalusians]] used fragrance in devotion to God. Perfumes added a layer of cleanliness that was needed for their devotion. Andalusian women were also offered greater [[Women's rights|freedoms]] than women in other Muslim controlled regions and were allowed to leave their homes and socialize outside. This freedom allowed [[courtship]] to occur outside of the home. As a result, Andalusian women used perfumes for courtship.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Perfumes in Spain |url=http://www.lacasamundo.com/2013/05/historia-del-perfume-en-espana-los.html |website=La Casa Mundo |access-date=24 September 2021 |archive-date=24 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924093246/http://www.lacasamundo.com/2013/05/historia-del-perfume-en-espana-los.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Recipes of perfumes from the [[monk]]s of Santa Maria Delle Vigne or [[Santa Maria Novella]] of [[Florence]], Italy, were recorded from 1221.<ref>{{cite book|title=Citrus bergamia: Bergamot and its Derivatives|author=Giovanni Dugo, Ivana Bonaccorsi|publisher=CRC Press|year=2013|isbn=9781439862292|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0vNBQAAQBAJ|pages=467}}</ref> In the east, the [[Hungarians]] produced around 1370 a perfume made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution – best known as [[Hungary Water]] – at the behest of [[Elisabeth of Poland|Queen Elizabeth of Hungary]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Mystery and Lure of Perfume|last=Thompson|first=C.J.S.|publisher=John Lane the Bodley Head Limited|year=1927|location=London|pages=140}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Voudouri|first1=Dimitra|last2=Tesseromatis|first2=Christine|date=December 2015|title=Perfumery from Myth to Antiquity|url=http://ijmpnet.com/journals/ijmp/Vol_3_No_2_Decembe_2015/4.pdf|journal=International Journal of Medicine and Pharmacy|volume=3|issue=2|pages=52|doi=10.15640/ijmp.v3n2a4|doi-access=free|access-date=11 October 2020|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816172513/http://ijmpnet.com/journals/ijmp/Vol_3_No_2_Decembe_2015/4.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Sullivan|first=Catherine|date=1994-03-01|title=Searching for nineteenth-century Florida water bottles|journal=Historical Archaeology|language=en|volume=28|issue=1|pages=78–98|doi=10.1007/BF03374182|s2cid=162639733|issn=0440-9213}}</ref> The art of perfumery prospered in [[Renaissance]] Italy, and in the 16th century the personal perfumer to [[Catherine de' Medici]] (1519–1589), [[René Bianchi (perfumer)|René]] the [[Florence|Florentine]] (Renato il fiorentino), took Italian refinements to France. His laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulae could be stolen en route. Thanks to Rene, France quickly became one of the European centers of perfume and [[cosmetics]] manufacture. Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France.

Between the 16th and 17th centuries, perfumes were used primarily by the wealthy to mask [[body odor]]s resulting from infrequent bathing.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stoddart|first=David Michael|title=The Scented Ape: The Biology and Culture of Human Odour|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1990|pages=142–167}}</ref> In 1693, Italian barber Giovanni Paolo Feminis created a perfume water called Aqua Admirabilis,<ref>Compare: {{cite book
| last1                 = Pepe
| first1                = Tracy
| title                 = So, What's All the Sniff About?: An In-Depth Plea for Sanity and Equal Rights for Your Sense of Smell, Our Most Neglected and Endangered Sense
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=dZYVMRG0PMAC
| publisher             = So Whats all the Sniff about
| date      = 2000
| page                  = 46
| isbn                  = 9780968707609
| access-date            = 11 July 2015
| quote                 = In 1693 an Italian, Giovanni Paolo de Feminis created a fragrance called "Aqua Mirabilis". This fragrance was said to have therapeutic properties to aid with headaches and heart palpitations. It was designed as a non-gender aroma that would enhance one's mood.
}}
</ref>
today best known as [[eau de cologne]]; his nephew [[Johann Maria Farina]] (Giovanni Maria Farina) took over the business in 1732.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cologneblog.com/history-of-mens-cologne/ |title=A Brief History of Men's Cologne – Discover the History of Men's Fragrances-COLOGNE BLOG |work=COLOGNE BLOG |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203004537/http://cologneblog.com/history-of-mens-cologne/ |archive-date=3 February 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=New Remedies: An Illustrated Monthly Trade Journal of Materia Medica, Pharmacy and Therapeutics|author=Charles Rice, Frederick Albert Castle|publisher=W. Wood & Company|year=1879|pages=358}}</ref>

By the 18th century the [[Grasse]] region of France, [[Sicily]], and [[Calabria]] (in Italy) were growing aromatic plants to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, Italy and France remain the center of European perfume design and [[trade]].

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">
Perfume vase MET 30.8.177 EGDP017567 (cropped).jpg|Ancient Egyptian perfume vase in shape of an [[amphoriskos]]; 664–630&nbsp;BC; glass: 8 × 4&nbsp;cm (3.1 × 1.5 &nbsp;in); [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
Perfume bottle in shape of an athlete agora museum athens.jpg|[[Ancient Greek art|Ancient Greek]] perfume bottle in shape of an athlete binding a victory ribbon around his head; circa 540s BC; [[Ancient Agora Museum]] ([[Athens]])

Etruscan perfume vase Louvre Br2949.jpg|[[Etruscan art|Etruscan]] perfume vase, which is inscribed the word "suthina" ("for the tomb"); early 2nd century BC; bronze; height: 16 cm; [[Louvre]]

Glass gold-band mosaic alabastron (perfume bottle) MET DP105812.jpg|Late [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] glass gold-band mosaic alabastron (perfume bottle); 1st century BC; glass and [[gold leaf]]; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Glass perfume bottle MET DP108896.jpg|[[Roman Empire|Roman]] perfume bottle; 1st century AD; glass; 5.2 x 3.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
EAM - Perfume amphora.jpg|Partially broken perfume amphora; 2nd century AD; glass; from [[Ephesus]]; [[Ephesus Archaeological Museum]] ([[Selçuk]], [[Turkey]])
Perfume vase MET DP285422.jpg|British [[Rococo]] perfume vase; circa 1761; soft-paste porcelain; overall: 43.2 × 29.2 × 17.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Pair of perfume burners MET DP104612.jpg|British [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] pair of perfume burners; probably circa 1770; derbyshire spar, tortoiseshell, and wood, [[Carrara marble]] base, gilded brass mounts, gilded copper liner; 33 × 14.3 × 14.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Louis Comfort Tiffany - Perfume Bottle - 1966.379 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|[[Art Nouveau]] perfume bottle; circa 1900; glass with gilt metal cover; overall: 13.4 cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] ([[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]], USA)
</gallery>