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Do not fill this in! == History == {{Main|History of Minneapolis}} === Dakota homeland, city founded === {{main|Dakota people|Ojibwe|Bdóte|US–Dakota War of 1862}} [[File:Minneapolis-map-m0079.jpg|thumb|upright=.6|alt=Line drawing of the location of villages and paths, map shows the Minnesota River (then called St Peter), the Mississippi, Minnehaha Creek, Saint Anthony Falls, and several lakes|Area that became Minneapolis pictured {{circa| 1820–1860}}]] Two Indigenous nations inhabited the area now called Minneapolis.{{sfn|Lass|2000|p=40}} Archaeologists have evidence to say at least since 1000 A.D.,<ref name=RFurst>{{cite news|title=Which Indigenous tribes first called Minnesota home?|url=https://www.startribune.com/native-american-dakota-ojibwe-history/600097050/|last=Furst|first=Randy|date=October 8, 2021|access-date=November 3, 2023|newspaper=[[Star Tribune]]|archive-date=November 3, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103230331/https://www.startribune.com/native-american-dakota-ojibwe-history/600097050/|url-status=live}}</ref> they are the [[Dakota people|Dakota]] (one half of the [[Sioux]] nation),{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=365n}} and, after the 1700s,{{sfn|McConvell|Rhodes|Güldemann|2020|pp=560, 564|loc="Finally in this time frame other groups of Ojibwes began pushing to the west and southwest, at the expense of the Dakota groups"}} the [[Ojibwe]] (also known as Chippewa, members of the Anishinaabe nations).{{sfn|Treuer|2010|p=3}} Dakota people have different stories to explain their creation.{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=15}} One widely accepted story says the Dakota emerged from [[Bdóte]],{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=15}} the confluence of the [[Minnesota River|Minnesota]] and [[Mississippi river]]s. Dakota are the only inhabitants of the Minneapolis area who claimed no other land;{{sfn|Weber|2022|p=6}} they have no traditions of having immigrated.{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|pp=3–4|loc="William H. Keating, a geologist who came to the Minnesota area on an exploratory expedition in 1823, observed, 'The Dacotas have no tradition of having ever emigrated, from any other place, to the spot on which they now reside...'}} In 1680, cleric [[Louis Hennepin]], who was probably the first European to see the Minneapolis waterfall the Dakota people call [[Owámniyomni]], renamed it the Falls of St. [[Anthony of Padua]] for his patron saint.{{sfn|DeCarlo|2020|p=15}} In the [[Dakota language]], the city's name is ''Bde Óta Othúŋwe'' ('Many Lakes Town').{{efn|The University of Minnesota Dakota Dictionary Online requires a Dakota font to read special characters.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://fmp.cla.umn.edu/dakota/browserecord.php?-action=browse&-recid=73 |title = Bdeota O™uåwe |access-date = October 13, 2022 |work = University of Minnesota Dakota Dictionary Online|publisher=[[University of Minnesota]]|archive-date = October 13, 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221013173548/https://fmp.cla.umn.edu/dakota/browserecord.php?-action=browse&-recid=73 |url-status = live }}</ref> Here, Dakota to Latin alphabet transliteration is borrowed from [[Lerner Publishing Group|Lerner Publishing]] in Minneapolis.{{sfn|Kimmerer|Smith|2022|p=302}}}} Purchasing most of modern-day Minneapolis, [[Zebulon Pike]] made the [[Treaty of St. Peters#1805 Treaty of St. Peters|1805 Treaty of St. Peter]] with the Dakota.{{efn|Because President Thomas Jefferson had not authorized Pike's trip, which was made at the behest of [[James Wilkinson]], the new governor of the Louisiana territory, Pike did not have the authority to make a treaty.{{sfn|Weber|2022|p=14}} Pike valued the land at $200,000 in his journal but omitted the value in Article 2 of the treaty. Pike gave the chiefs {{convert|60|gal|l}} of liquor and $200 in gifts at the signing.{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=141}} In 1808, the US Senate authorized one hundredth of Pike's estimate and added acreage,{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=141}} paying $2,000 for the land in 1819.{{sfn|Weber|2022|p=13}}}} Pike bought a {{convert|9|sqmi|sqkm|adj=on}} strip of land—coinciding with the sacred place of Dakota origin{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=15}}—on the Mississippi south of Saint Anthony Falls,{{sfn|Stipanovich|1982|p=4}} with the agreement the US would build a military fort and trading post there and the Dakota would retain their land use rights.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=77}} In 1819, the [[United States Army|US Army]] built [[Fort Snelling]]<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.latimes.com/travel/la-xpm-2012-sep-16-la-tr-ftsnellingminnesota-20120916-story.html |last1 = Watson |first1 = Catherine |date = September 16, 2012 |access-date = December 27, 2019 |work = [[Los Angeles Times]] |title = Ft. Snelling: Citadel on a Minnesota bluff |archive-date = May 7, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210507133632/https://www.latimes.com/travel/la-xpm-2012-sep-16-la-tr-ftsnellingminnesota-20120916-story.html |url-status = live }}</ref> to direct Native American trade away from British-Canadian traders, and to deter warring between the Dakota and [[Ojibwe]] in northern Minnesota.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=82}} The fort attracted traders, settlers, and merchants, spurring growth in the surrounding region. Agents of the St. Peters Indian Agency at the fort enforced the US policy of [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|assimilating Native Americans into mainstream American society]], asking them to give up subsistence hunting and cultivate the land.<ref name="mnhsFort" /> Missionaries encouraged Native Americans to convert from [[Native American religion|their religion]] to Christianity.<ref name="mnhsFort">{{cite web |url = https://www.mnhs.org/fortsnelling/learn/native-americans/us-indian-agency |title = Historic Fort Snelling: The US Indian Agency (1820–1853) |publisher = [[Minnesota Historical Society]] |access-date = December 27, 2019 |archive-date = August 14, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210814051357/https://www.mnhs.org/fortsnelling/learn/native-americans/us-indian-agency |url-status = live }}</ref> Under pressure from US officials{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=4|loc="government officials put great pressure on Dakota leaders to be quick about signing a treaty..."}} in a series of treaties, the Dakota ceded their land first to the east, and then to the west of the Mississippi, the river that runs through Minneapolis.<ref name=MNtreaties>{{cite web|url=https://www.usdakotawar.org/history/treaties/minnesota-treaties|title=Minnesota Treaties|date=August 14, 2012|access-date=November 16, 2023|publisher=[[Minnesota Historical Society]]|archive-date=August 25, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825023515/http://www.usdakotawar.org/history/treaties/minnesota-treaties|url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|In the 1851 [[Treaty of Traverse des Sioux]] and [[Treaty of Mendota]], the US took all Dakota land west of the Mississippi,{{sfn|Lass|2000|p=108}} about {{convert|24|e6acre}},{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=182}} in exchange for a {{convert|10|mi|km|adj=on}} wide reservation on the Minnesota River{{sfn|Folwell|1921|p=216}} and about $3 million {{USDCY|3000000|1851}}. Ater expenses, the Dakota were promised fifty years of annuities in goods{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=171}} and interest on $1,360,000 and $1,410,000; the US kept the principal.{{sfn|Anderson|2019|p=30}} The Dakota could not read English, and their interpreters worked for the US.<ref name=MNtreaties /> In Mendota, negotiator [[Wacouta I|Wakute]] said he feared signing a treaty because the prior treaty was changed from the one he had signed.{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|pp=5, 188}} Indeed, the US Congress ratified amendments after the fact, and refused to consider payment unless the Dakota agreed to their new terms—in 1852 Congress struck the reservation from the final treaty.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=197}} Negotiators [[Bureau of Indian Affairs#Commissioners and assistant secretaries|Luke Lea]] and [[Alexander Ramsey]] had promised the Dakota they would prosper, and rushed the transaction.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|pp=189–192}} The chiefs were asked to sign a third paper in 1851—onlookers assumed it was a third copy of the treaty{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=180–181}}—that Ramsey later declared was a "solemn acknowledgment" of the Dakota's debt to traders.{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=191}} Ramsey, as territorial governor, enforced the trader's paper, distributing the monies to himself, [[Henry Hastings Sibley|Henry Sibley]], and their friends.{{sfn|Anderson|2019|loc=pp. 32–33. Anderson examined the Dousman Papers to formulate estimates of the funds that were diverted to White officials}}}} Dakota leaders twice refused to sign the next treaty until they were paid for the previous one.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|pp=187, 193}}In the space of sixty years, the US had seized all of Dakota land. In the decades following these treaty signings, the [[Federal government of the United States|federal US government]] rarely honored their terms.<ref>{{Cite web |title = Treaties |url = https://www.usdakotawar.org/history/treaties |access-date = June 1, 2021 |date = July 31, 2012 |publisher = [[Minnesota Historical Society]] |quote = These treaties, which were almost wholly dishonored by the U.S. government... |archive-date = August 15, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210815133626/https://www.usdakotawar.org/history/treaties |url-status = live }}</ref> After closing in 1858, the [[University of Minnesota]] was revived using land taken from the Dakota people under the [[Morrill Land-Grant Acts]] in 1862.<ref name="morillgrant">{{cite news | last=Vue | first=Katelyn | title=Over 150 years ago, tribal land revived the University. Now, American Indian leaders, students and faculty want this history addressed | newspaper=[[Minnesota Daily]] | date=July 7, 2020 | url=https://mndaily.com/255055/news/acmorrillact/ | access-date=November 25, 2023 | archive-date=November 25, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125170957/https://mndaily.com/255055/news/acmorrillact/ | url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|The Treaty of 1837 forced Dakota to make the largest land cession—all of their land east of the Mississippi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/great-university-land-grab|title=The great university land-grab|last=Almeroth-Williams|first=Tom|quote=The Treaty of 1837 gave 1,062,334 acres, more than any other land cession, to 33 LGUs|access-date=April 11, 2024|publisher=[[University of Cambridge]]|archive-date=February 14, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214085809/https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/great-university-land-grab|url-status=live}}</ref> Then the Dakota ceded more of their land in the Treaty of 1851.<ref name="Bhattacharya 2023 l546">{{cite news | last=Bhattacharya | first=Ananya | title=Native Americans are struggling to put a dollar value on how much "land-grab" universities owe them | newspaper=Quartz | date=July 10, 2023 | url=https://qz.com/native-americans-are-struggling-to-put-a-dollar-value-o-1850620896 | access-date=November 25, 2023 | archive-date=November 25, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125171143/https://qz.com/native-americans-are-struggling-to-put-a-dollar-value-o-1850620896 | url-status=live }}</ref>}} [[File:Dakota-Interment-Pike Island.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Black and white photo of one end of an island covered with hundreds of teepees inside a stockade|Dakota non-combatants living in a [[concentration camp]] at [[Fort Snelling]] during the winter of 1862<ref name="Minnesota Historical Society 2015 w866">{{cite web | title=The US-Dakota War of 1862 | publisher=[[Minnesota Historical Society]] | date=November 23, 2015 | url=https://www.mnhs.org/fortsnelling/learn/us-dakota-war | access-date=April 13, 2024 | archive-date=September 20, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920024828/https://www.mnhs.org/fortsnelling/learn/us-dakota-war | url-status=live }}</ref>]] At the beginning of the American Civil War, annuity payments owed in June 1862 to the Dakota by treaty were late, causing acute hunger among the Dakota.{{sfn|Blegen|1975|p=265–267}}{{efn|Part of the delay was a month's indecision in the US Treasury about appropriating gold or greenbacks and in Congress, which was preoccupied with Civil War finance. Gold arrived in the region just a few hours after settlers had been killed and war had begun.{{sfn|Folwell|1921|pp=237–238}}}} Facing starvation{{sfn|Anderson|2019|loc=p. 55: "...they had to beg for food from the settlers or starve"}} a faction of the Dakota declared [[Dakota War of 1862|war]] in August and killed settlers.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=307|loc=The uprising involved at most 1,000 of the Dakota population of more than 7,000}} Serving without any prior military experience, US commander [[Henry Hastings Sibley|Henry Sibley]] had raw recruits,{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=309}} among them the only mounted troops were volunteers from Minneapolis and Saint Paul with no military experience.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|pp=309, 314}} The war went on for six weeks in the Minnesota River valley.<ref name=MNHSwar /> Some terrified [[American pioneer|American settlers]] traveled {{convert|80|mi|km}} away from the massacre to Minneapolis for safety.{{sfn|Leonard|1915|loc=search for "refugees"}} After a US [[kangaroo court]],{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=313|loc="what could only be termed a kangaroo court..."}} 38 Dakota men died by hanging as ordered by [[Abraham Lincoln]].<ref name=MNHSwar>{{cite web|url=https://www.mnhs.org/lowersioux/learn/us-dakota-war-1862|title=US-Dakota War of 1862|access-date=November 6, 2023|publisher=[[Minnesota Historical Society]]|archive-date=September 30, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930235003/https://www.mnhs.org/lowersioux/learn/us-dakota-war-1862|url-status=live}}</ref> The army marched 1,700 non-hostile Dakota men, women, children, and elders {{convert|150|mi|km}} to a [[concentration camp]] at [[Fort Snelling]].<ref name="Minnesota Historical Society 2015 w866"/>{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=319}} Minneapolitans reportedly threatened more than once to attack the camp.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=320}} In 1863, the US "abrogated and annulled" all treaties with the Dakota.{{sfn|Vogel|2013|p=540}} With Governor [[Alexander Ramsey]] calling for their extermination,{{sfn|Anderson|2019|p=188}} most Dakota were exiled from Minnesota.<ref>{{cite web |title = Forced Marches & Imprisonment |date = August 23, 2012 |url = https://www.usdakotawar.org/history/aftermath/forced-marches-imprisonment |access-date = March 2, 2023 |archive-date = May 8, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210508061622/https://www.usdakotawar.org/history/aftermath/forced-marches-imprisonment |url-status = live |publisher = [[Minnesota Historical Society]]}}</ref> While the Dakota were being expelled, [[Franklin Steele]] laid claim to the east bank of [[Saint Anthony Falls]],<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.nps.gov/articles/wheat-farms-flour-mills-and-railroads-a-web-of-interdependence-teaching-with-historic-places.htm |title = Wheat Farms, Flour Mills, and Railroads: A Web of Interdependence |access-date = March 2, 2023 |publisher = [[US National Park Service]] |archive-date = March 2, 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230302182707/https://www.nps.gov/articles/wheat-farms-flour-mills-and-railroads-a-web-of-interdependence-teaching-with-historic-places.htm |url-status = live }}</ref> and [[John H. Stevens]] built a home on the west bank.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.nps.gov/miss/planyourvisit/johnstev.htm |title = John H. Stevens House Museum |access-date = December 31, 2019 |publisher = [[US National Park Service]] |archive-date = August 15, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210815131225/https://www.nps.gov/miss/planyourvisit/johnstev.htm |url-status = live }}</ref> Residents had divergent ideas on names for their community. In 1852, [[Charles Hoag]] proposed combining the Dakota word for 'water' (''mni''{{efn|In [[Isaac Atwater|Atwater]]'s history, Baldwin gives the Sioux word as ''Minne''.{{sfn|Baldwin|1893a|p=39}} [[Stephen Return Riggs|Riggs]] gives ''mini''.{{sfn|Riggs|1992|p=314}} [[John Poage Williamson|Williamson]] who was most familiar with [[Dakota people|Santee]] has ''Mini'', and in the [[Dakota people|Yankton]] dialect, ''mni''.{{sfn|Williamson|1992|p=257}} Here, ''mni'' is from the University of Minnesota Dakota Dictionary Online.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://fmp.cla.umn.edu/dakota/browserecord.php?-action=browse&-recid=846 |title = mni |access-date = October 13, 2022 |work = University of Minnesota Dakota Dictionary Online|publisher=[[University of Minnesota]] |archive-date = October 13, 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221013174751/https://fmp.cla.umn.edu/dakota/browserecord.php?-action=browse&-recid=846 |url-status = live }}</ref>}}) with the Greek word for 'city' ({{lang|el|polis}}), yielding ''Minneapolis''. In 1851 after a meeting of the [[Minnesota Territorial Legislature]], leaders of east bank St. Anthony lost their bid to move the capital from Saint Paul.<ref name=McKinney /> In a close vote, Saint Paul and [[Stillwater, Minnesota|Stillwater]] agreed to divide federal funding:<ref name=McKinney /> Saint Paul would be the capital, while Stillwater would build the prison. The St. Anthony contingent eventually won the state university.<ref name=McKinney>{{cite book |author = Christianson, Theodore |publisher = [[American Historical Society]] |title = Minnesota: The Land of Sky-tinted Waters: A History of the State And Its People |date = 1935 |location = Chicago }} Courtesy ''[[Star Tribune]]'' and the Minnesota Legislative Reference Library, in {{cite news |title = How did Stillwater become home to Minnesota's first prison? |url = https://www.startribune.com/minnesota-territorial-prison-stillwater-history/600199594/ |author = McKinney, Matt |date = August 19, 2022 |access-date = August 19, 2022 |work =[[Star Tribune]]|archive-date = August 19, 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220819125313/https://www.startribune.com/minnesota-territorial-prison-stillwater-history/600199594/ |url-status = live }}</ref> In 1855 with a charter from the legislature, Steele and associates opened the [[Hennepin Avenue Bridge|first bridge]] across the Mississippi; the toll bridge cost pedestrians three cents {{USDCY|0.03|1855}}.<ref>{{cite news|title=Father Louis Hennepin Bridge was first to span Mississippi|last=Reicher|first=Matt|date=May 6, 2014|access-date=May 11, 2023|url=https://www.minnpost.com/mnopedia/2014/05/father-louis-hennepin-bridge-was-first-span-mississippi/|work=[[MinnPost]]|archive-date=May 11, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511143904/https://www.minnpost.com/mnopedia/2014/05/father-louis-hennepin-bridge-was-first-span-mississippi/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1856, the territorial legislature authorized Minneapolis as a town on the Mississippi's west bank.{{sfn|Baldwin|1893a|p=39}} Minneapolis was incorporated as a city in 1867, and in 1872, it merged with St. Anthony.<ref>{{cite web |title = A History of Minneapolis: Governance and Infrastructure |url = http://www.hclib.org/pub/search/specialcollections/mplshistory/?id=19 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120422185148/http://www.hclib.org/pub/search/specialcollections/mplshistory/?id=19 |archive-date = April 22, 2012 |access-date = March 12, 2023 |publisher =[[Hennepin County Library]]}}</ref> === Water power, lumber, and flour milling === [[File:Mid 1850s Daguerreotype of St. Anthony Falls (cropped, grayscale, levels).jpg|thumb|upright=.8|alt=Waterfall surrounded by sawmills and scaffolding|[[Saint Anthony Falls]] {{circa|1850s}}]] Minneapolis developed around Saint Anthony Falls, the only natural waterfall on the Mississippi, which was used as a source of energy.<ref name=NPSfalls /> A 1989 Minnesota Archaeological Society analysis of the Minneapolis riverfront describes the use of [[hydropower|water power]] in Minneapolis between 1880 and 1930 as "the greatest direct-drive waterpower center the world has ever seen".{{sfn|Anfinson|1990|loc=Chapter 4 Interpretive Potentials}} Minneapolis earned the nickname "Mill City."<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.minneapolis.org/about-us/history-of-minneapolis/ |title = About Us |access-date = February 28, 2023 |publisher = City of Minneapolis |archive-date = March 15, 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230315160736/https://www.minneapolis.org/about-us/history-of-minneapolis/ |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name=Sturdevant /> The city's two founding industries—lumber and flour milling—developed in the 19th century nearly concurrently. Flour milling overshadowed lumber for some decades; nevertheless, each came to prominence for about fifty years.{{efn|"Minneapolis would be the nation's flour capital for 50 years." and "Begun in 1848, timber milling had lasted for almost 50 years."{{sfn|Anfinson|Madigan|Forsberg|Nunnally|2003}}}} The city's first commercial [[sawmill]] was built in 1848, and the first [[gristmill]] in 1849.{{sfn|Gras|1922|pp=300–301}}{{efn|These mills were the first built for commerce. Earlier, soldiers from Fort Snelling built a sawmill in 1820, and a grist mill in 1823, on the west bank near the falls.{{sfn|Liebling|Morrison|1966|p=18}}{{sfn|Kane|1987|p=165}}}} A lumber industry was built around forests in northern Minnesota, largely by lumbermen emigrating from [[Maine]]'s depleting forests.{{sfn|Blegen|1975|p=320}}{{sfn|Larson|2007|p=15}} Towns built in western Minnesota with lumber from Minneapolis sawmills shipped their wheat back to the city for milling.{{sfn|Lass|2000|p=175}} The region's waterways were used to transport logs well after railroads developed; the Mississippi River carried logs to [[St. Louis]] until the early 20th century.{{sfn|Lass|2000|pp=173–174}} In 1871, of the thirteen mills sawing lumber in St. Anthony, eight ran on water power and five ran on steam power.{{sfn|Larson|2007|p=146}} Minneapolis supplied the materials for farmsteads and settlement of rapidly expanding cities on the [[prairie]]s that lacked wood.{{sfn|Larson|2007|pp=7, 29}} [[White pine]] milled in Minneapolis built [[Miles City, Montana]]; [[Bismarck, North Dakota]]; [[Sioux Falls, South Dakota]]; [[Omaha, Nebraska]]; and [[Wichita, Kansas]].{{sfn|Lass|2000|p=173}} Auxiliary businesses on the river's west bank in 1871 included woolen mills, iron works, a railroad machine shop, and mills for cotton, paper, sashes, and wood-planing.<ref>{{cite web |last1 = Frame |first1 = Robert M. III |first2 = Jeffrey |last2 = Hess |title = Historic American Engineering Record MN-16: West Side Milling District |publisher = [[US National Park Service]] |url = http://cdn.loc.gov/master/pnp/habshaer/mn/mn0100/mn0100/data/mn0100data.pdf |date = January 1990 |access-date = December 5, 2020 |page = 2 |archive-date = June 12, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170612023256/https://cdn.loc.gov/master/pnp/habshaer/mn/mn0100/mn0100/data/mn0100data.pdf |url-status = live }}</ref> Due to the occupational hazards of milling, by the 1890s, six companies manufactured artificial limbs.<ref>{{cite news |last = Hart |first = Joseph |url = http://www.citypages.com/1997-06-11/news/lost-city/full/ |date = June 11, 1997 |work = [[City Pages]] |title = Lost City |access-date = January 12, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131104062935/http://www.citypages.com/1997-06-11/news/lost-city/full/ |archive-date = November 4, 2013 }}</ref> Growing use of steam power freed lumbermen and their sawmills from dependence on the falls.{{sfn|Kane|1987|p=108|loc="Another factor which contributed to the decline of sawmilling at the falls was steam power"}} Lumber was the main Minneapolis industry in 1870,{{sfn|Kane|1987|p=106}} before flour milling overtook it in the 1880s.{{sfn|Kane|1987|p=106}} Lumbering reached a statewide peak in 1900 when its decline began.{{sfn|Lass|2000|p=180}} After depleting Minnesota's white pine,{{sfn|Risjord|2005|p=131|loc="By then, however, the pine woods were virtually exhausted"}} some lumbermen moved on to [[Douglas fir]] in the [[Pacific Northwest]].{{sfn|Lass|2000|p=180|loc=Here, Lass calls the lumbermen's actions as cutting at a "rapacious rate", and calls out a "rapacious assault on the coniferous forests" on page 196}} Sawmills in the city including the Minneapolis [[Weyerhauser]] mill closed by 1919.<ref>{{cite web|title=The National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings: Theme XVII-b|volume=2|author=[[National Park Service]] and [[United States Department of the Interior]]|date=1966|publisher=[[National Park Service]]|url=http://npshistory.com/publications/nhl/theme-studies/commerce-industry-2.pdf|quote=The last of Minneapolis' once great sawmills, that of Frederick Weyerhaeuser and Associates, closed forever in 1919.|access-date=August 27, 2023|archive-date=August 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230827182832/http://npshistory.com/publications/nhl/theme-studies/commerce-industry-2.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Loaders-Pillsbury-Minneapolis.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Two men who loaded flour and a bag of flour that says Monahan's Minneapolis and a Pillsbury truck|Loading flour, [[Pillsbury Company|Pillsbury]], 1939]] Disasters struck the city in the late 19th century. Dug under the river at [[Nicollet Island]], the [[Eastman tunnel]] leaked in 1869. Water sucked the {{convert|6|ft|m|abbr=on}} [[tailrace]] into a {{convert|90|ft|m|abbr=on}}-wide chasm.<ref name=Carroll /> Community-led repairs failed and in 1870, several buildings and mills fell into the river.<ref name=Carroll /> For years, the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] struggled to close the gap with timber until their concrete dike held in 1876.<ref name=Carroll>{{cite web |title = Engineering the Falls: The Corps of Engineers' Role at St. Anthony Falls |first1 = Jane |last1 = Lamm Carroll |date = October 27, 2015 |access-date = October 9, 2022 |url = https://www.mvp.usace.army.mil/Media/News-Stories/Article/626089/engineering-the-falls-the-corps-of-engineers-role-at-st-anthony-falls/ |publisher = St. Paul District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers |archive-date = October 9, 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221009171443/https://www.mvp.usace.army.mil/Media/News-Stories/Article/626089/engineering-the-falls-the-corps-of-engineers-role-at-st-anthony-falls/ |url-status = live }}</ref> In 1870, and again in 1887, fire destroyed the entire row of sawmills on the east bank.{{sfn|Kane|1987|pp=81, 122}} In 1878, an explosion of flour dust at the [[Great Mill Disaster|Washburn A mill]] killed eighteen people{{sfn|Liebling|Morrison|1966|p=181}} and demolished several mills.<ref name=deBeaulieu>{{cite news|title=History: The Mill Explosion|last=de Beaulieu|first=Ron|date=Winter 2023|work=Minnesota Alumni|publisher=[[University of Minnesota]]|access-date=June 5, 2023|url=https://www.minnesotaalumni.org/stories/history-the-mill-explosion|archive-date=June 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605230020/https://www.minnesotaalumni.org/stories/history-the-mill-explosion|url-status=live}}</ref> The explosion cost the city nearly one half of its capacity, but the mill was rebuilt the next year.{{sfn|Blegen|1975|p=352}} In 1893, fire spread from Nicollet Island to Boom Island to northeast Minneapolis where wind stopped it at the stone [[Grain Belt (beer)#The former brewery|Grain Belt Brewery]]. Twenty blocks were destroyed and two people died.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lileks|first=James|title=Minnesota Moment: Grain Belt stopped Northeast fire of 1893|url=https://www.startribune.com/minnesota-moment-grain-belt-stopped-northeast-fire-of-1893/490498241/|newspaper=[[Star Tribune]]|access-date=December 1, 2023|date=August 10, 2018|archive-date=November 22, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122183909/https://www.startribune.com/minnesota-moment-grain-belt-stopped-northeast-fire-of-1893/490498241/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cadwallader C. Washburn]] founded Washburn-Crosby, the company that became [[General Mills]].{{sfn|Danbom|2003|p=274}}{{sfn|Watts|2000|p=95}} He learned of and adopted three flour milling innovations:{{sfn|Watts|2000|p=92}} [[middlings purifier]]s blew out the [[husk]]s that had colored flour;{{sfn|Danbom|2003|p=277}} gradual reduction by steel and porcelain [[roller mill]]s combined gluten with starch;{{sfn|Danbom|2003|p=277}} and a ventilation system decreased the risk of explosion by reducing flour dust in the air.{{sfn|Watts|2000|p=96}} Washburn and partner [[John Crosby (General Mills)|John Crosby]]{{sfn|Lass|2000|p=162}} sent Austrian civil engineer [[William de la Barre]] to [[Hungary]] where he acquired some of these innovations through [[industrial espionage]].{{sfn|Danbom|2003|p=277}} De la Barre carefully calculated and managed the power at the falls and encouraged steam for auxiliary power.{{sfn|Kane|1987|p=118}} [[Charles Alfred Pillsbury]] and the [[Pillsbury Company|C. A. Pillsbury Company]] across the river hired Washburn employees and began using the new methods.{{sfn|Danbom|2003|p=277}} The [[Wheat production in the United States#Classification and uses|hard red spring wheat]] grown in Minnesota became valuable—$0.50 profit per barrel in 1871 {{USDCY|0.50|1871}} increased to $4.50 in 1874 {{USDCY|4.50|1874}}{{sfn|Watts|2000|p=94}}—and Minnesota "patent" flour was recognized at the time as the best bread flour in the world.{{sfn|Danbom|2003|p=277}} By 1895, through the efforts of silent partner [[William Hood Dunwoody]], Washburn-Crosby exported four million barrels of flour a year to the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Gray|1954|pp=33–35}} When exports peaked in 1900, fourteen percent of America's grain was milled in Minneapolis{{sfn|Danbom|2003|p=277}} and about one third of that was shipped overseas.{{sfn|Gray|1954|p=41}} Overall production peaked at 18.5 million barrels in 1916.{{sfn|Liebling|Morrison|1966|p=180}} Decades of [[soil exhaustion]], [[stem rust]], and changes in freight tariffs combined to quash the city's flour industry.{{sfn|Lass|2000|p=238}} In the 1920s, Washburn-Crosby and Pillsbury developed new milling centers in [[Buffalo, New York]], and [[Kansas City, Missouri]], while maintaining their headquarters in Minneapolis.{{sfn|Lass|2000|p=238|loc="The anticipated decline came rather abruptly during the 1920s. By the end of that decade the Mill City produced only slightly more than half as much flour as it had at its zenith, and ranked third after Buffalo and Kansas City, Missouri."}} Under increasingly consolidated management, plants on the Minneapolis mill properties generated [[hydroelectricity]] with surplus water.{{sfn|Kane|1987|pp=156, 166, 171}} Hydroelectricity became the equal of flour milling as a user of the falls's power.{{sfn|Kane|1987|p=164}} [[Northern States Power]] bought the united mill companies in 1923,{{sfn|Kane|1987|p=171}} and by the 1950s controlled over 53,000 horsepower at the falls.{{sfn|Kane|1987|p=174}} In 1971, the falls became a [[List of contributing properties in the St. Anthony Falls Historic District|national historic district]].{{sfn|Kane|1987|p=186}} Hitherto "the backside of the city",{{sfn|Weber|2022|p=159}} the riverfront caught the attention of a convoluted network of private and government interests who sometimes fought. They developed [[townhouse]]s and [[high rise]]s, and rebuilt and renovated lofts—often neglecting affordability—revitalizing mills on both banks.{{sfn|Nathanson|2010|loc=Chapter 6, ''Reimagining the Riverfront''}} The upper St. Anthony [[lock and dam]] permanently closed in 2015,<ref>{{cite news|title=Army Corps studying dam removal that could restore free-flowing Mississippi River in Twin Cities|url=https://www.startribune.com/army-corps-studying-dam-removal-that-could-restore-free-flowing-mississippi-river-in-twin-cities/600216559/|date=October 17, 2022|last=Johnson|first=Chloe|access-date=June 28, 2023|work=[[Star Tribune]]|archive-date=June 28, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628194305/https://www.startribune.com/army-corps-studying-dam-removal-that-could-restore-free-flowing-mississippi-river-in-twin-cities/600216559/|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Saint Anthony Falls#Locks and dams|region's three locks]] were under federal disposition study as of 2023.<ref>{{cite news|title=On Minneapolis riverfront, 'orphan hazard' threatens St. Anthony Falls|last=Callaghan|first=Peter|date=June 30, 2023|access-date=July 3, 2023|work=[[MinnPost]]|url=https://www.minnpost.com/state-government/2023/06/on-minneapolis-riverfront-orphan-hazard-threatens-st-anthony-falls/|archive-date=July 3, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703051904/https://www.minnpost.com/state-government/2023/06/on-minneapolis-riverfront-orphan-hazard-threatens-st-anthony-falls/|url-status=live}}</ref> {{Wide image|Panorama-Minneapolis-1915.jpg|1000px|alt=panoramic view of Saint Anthony Falls and the Mississippi riverfront in 1915|[[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] riverfront and [[Saint Anthony Falls]] in 1915. At left, [[Pillsbury "A" Mill|Pillsbury]], power plants and the [[Stone Arch Bridge (Minneapolis)|Stone Arch Bridge]]. Today the [[Minnesota Historical Society]]'s Mill City Museum is in the [[Washburn "A" Mill]], across the river just to the left of the falls. At center-left are [[Northwestern Consolidated Milling Company|Northwestern Consolidated]] mills. The tall building is [[Minneapolis City Hall]]. In the right foreground are [[Nicollet Island]] and the [[Hennepin Avenue Bridge]].}} === Other industries develop === ''[[Minneapolis Star]]'' humorist Don Morrison wrote that the city doubled, tripled, then quadrupled its population every decade, and in 1922, the city's assessed [[property value]] was $266 million, "nearly 10 times the price paid for the entire midcontinent in the Louisiana Purchase."{{sfn|Liebling|Morrison|1966|p=29}} After the milling era waned, a "modern, major city"{{sfn|Liebling|Morrison|1966|p=29}} surfaced in 1900, attracted skilled workers,{{sfn|Stipanovich|1982|p=104|loc="Thus while Minneapolis began to lose jobs in the mills, it began to acquire other jobs in management, financial administration, advertising, market research, product research and design, and other mid-level management and administrative positions. The effect was to upgrade the workforce..."}} and depended on expertise from the university's [[University of Minnesota College of Science and Engineering|Institute of Technology]].{{sfn|Stipanovich|1982|p=111|loc="The university's role became more and more important as the 20th century rolled along..."}} [[File:Control Data 6600 Victor Ruiz-grayscale.jpg|thumb|[[Seymour Cray]] and colleagues began work on the [[CDC 6600]] ''(pictured)'' in downtown Minneapolis and completed the project in [[Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin]].{{sfn|Price|2005|p=36}}|alt=Refer to caption]] In 1886, businessman George D. Munsing found that itchy wool underwear could be covered in silk. His Minneapolis textile business—known then as Munsingwear, today as Perry Ellis<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.munsingwear.com/|title=Munsingwear|access-date=May 21, 2023|publisher=[[Perry Ellis International]]|archive-date=May 28, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528235007/https://munsingwear.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>—lasted a century and in 1923, was the world's largest manufacturer of underwear.{{sfn|Weber|2022|p=74}} In 1922, inventor David W. Onan founded Onan Corporation (bought by Cummins in 1986<ref name=Cummins>{{cite web|url=https://www.cummins.com/timeline|title=1919–2019 History: 100 years and counting|access-date=June 4, 2023|publisher=[[Cummins]]|quote=[In 1986] Cummins purchases a 63 percent share of the Onan Corporation. The remainder is acquired in 1992, making it a fully owned subsidiary for power systems.|archive-date=July 28, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728133241/https://www.cummins.com/timeline|url-status=live}}</ref>), that built and sold generators in Minneapolis.<ref name=Onan>{{cite web|url=https://onanfamily.org/wp-content/uploads/BOOK-ONAN-COMPANY-HISTORY-1982.pdf|title=Onan Company History: Beginnings Through 1982|first=David W. II|last=Onan|publisher=Onan Family Foundation|access-date=June 4, 2023|archive-date=July 14, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714105659/https://onanfamily.org/wp-content/uploads/BOOK-ONAN-COMPANY-HISTORY-1982.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Onan brought electricity to midwestern markets before power lines covered the country, and supplied about half the generator sets the US military used during World War II.{{sfn|Stipanovich|1982|p=110|}} [[Frederick McKinley Jones]] invented mobile [[refrigeration]] in Minneapolis, and with his associate founded [[Thermo King]] in 1938.<ref>{{cite news|title=Love the ice cream truck? Thank inventor Fred Jones|url=https://www.marketplace.org/2014/02/21/love-ice-cream-truck-thank-inventor-fred-jones/|work=[[Marketplace (radio program)|Marketplace]]|publisher=[[Minnesota Public Radio]]|date=February 21, 2014|access-date=May 23, 2023|last=Wallace|first=Lewis|archive-date=May 23, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523234102/https://www.marketplace.org/2014/02/21/love-ice-cream-truck-thank-inventor-fred-jones/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Medtronic]], founded in a Minneapolis garage in 1949,<ref>{{cite news|title=Man behind first wearable external pacemaker dies at age 94|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/man-behind-first-wearable-external-pacemaker-dies-at-age-94-1.4144201|date=October 22, 2018|agency=[[Associated Press]]|publisher=[[Bell Media]]|work=[[CTV News]]|access-date=May 23, 2023|archive-date=May 24, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524185243/https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/man-behind-first-wearable-external-pacemaker-dies-at-age-94-1.4144201|url-status=live}}</ref> and today domiciled in Ireland, as of 2022 usually appears in lists of the world's largest [[medical device]] makers.<ref>{{cite report|access-date=May 24, 2023|title=Medical Devices Market|publisher=Fortune Business Insights|url=https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/industry-reports/medical-devices-market-100085|date=June 2022|archive-date=May 24, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524173815/https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/industry-reports/medical-devices-market-100085|url-status=live}}</ref> Minnesota's computer industry was the largest and most varied in the US beginning in the 1950s, and in 1989 employed 68,000 people.{{sfn|Misa|2013|p=5}}{{efn|The computer industry in Minnesota began in 1946, when work in Washington, DC, and Ohio transferred to Saint Paul, where [[Engineering Research Associates]] was founded.{{sfn|Misa|2013|p=9}}}} [[Minneapolis-Honeywell]] built a south Minneapolis campus where their experience regulating indoor temperature earned them contracts controlling military servomechanisms like the secret [[Norden bombsight]] and the C-1 [[autopilot]].<ref name=BabbageHoneywell>{{cite web|url=http://gallery.lib.umn.edu/exhibits/show/digital-state/honeywell|title=Honeywell|access-date=May 22, 2023|publisher=[[University of Minnesota Libraries]]|work=[[Charles Babbage Institute]]|archive-date=May 22, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522231207/http://gallery.lib.umn.edu/exhibits/show/digital-state/honeywell|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 1960s, the [[Honeywell 316]] and DDP-516 were nodes in [[ARPANET]], the internet's precursor.<ref name=BabbageHoneywell /> The [[Honeywell Project]] from 1968 until 1990 advocated for peaceful means to replace the company's military interests.<ref name=BabbageHoneywell /> General Mills built computers for [[NASA]] in northeast Minneapolis in the 1950s.<ref name=BabbageOthers>{{cite web|url=http://gallery.lib.umn.edu/exhibits/show/digital-state/other-major-players|title=Other Major Players|access-date=May 22, 2023|publisher=[[University of Minnesota Libraries]]|work=[[Charles Babbage Institute]]|archive-date=May 22, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522231440/http://gallery.lib.umn.edu/exhibits/show/digital-state/other-major-players|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1957, [[Control Data]] began in downtown Minneapolis, where in the [[CDC 1604]] they replaced [[vacuum tube]]s with [[transistor]]s. Later Control Data moved to the suburbs{{efn|Control Data moved office in 1962, at the request of chief designer [[Seymour Cray]], to Cray's hometown of [[Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin]], to give fewer distractions{{sfn|Murray|1997|p=81}} as he and colleagues built the [[CDC 6600]], generally called the first [[supercomputer]]. Corporate offices remained in Minneapolis until 1960 when they moved to the suburbs.<ref name=BabbageCDC />}} and built the [[CDC 6600]] and [[CDC 7600]], the first [[supercomputer]]s.<ref name=BabbageCDC /> A highly successful business until disbanded in 1990, Control Data opened a facility in economically depressed north Minneapolis in 1967, bringing jobs and good publicity.<ref name=BabbageCDC>{{cite web|url=http://gallery.lib.umn.edu/exhibits/show/digital-state/control-data-corporation|title=Control Data Corporation|access-date=May 22, 2023|publisher=[[University of Minnesota Libraries]]|work=[[Charles Babbage Institute]]|archive-date=May 22, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522230028/http://gallery.lib.umn.edu/exhibits/show/digital-state/control-data-corporation|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[University of Minnesota]] formed an educational computing group that placed three or four personal computers in every Minnesota school, and in 1991 the group's personnel released [[Gopher (protocol)|Gopher]] on a [[Macintosh SE/30]] which ran until World Wide [[Web traffic]] surpassed Gopher traffic in 1994.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.minnpost.com/business/2016/08/rise-and-fall-gopher-protocol/|title=The rise and fall of the Gopher protocol|first=Tim|last=Gihring|date=August 11, 2016|work=[[MinnPost]]|access-date=May 22, 2023|archive-date=February 10, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210211738/https://www.minnpost.com/business/2016/08/rise-and-fall-gopher-protocol/|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 1960s, developers and city leaders successfully contended with shopping attractions in suburbia{{sfn|Nathanson|2010|p=164}}—the pioneering [[Southdale Center]]{{sfn|Nathanson|2010|p=163}} and later the [[Mall of America]].{{sfn|Nathanson|2010|p=183}} The new [[Minneapolis Skyway System]] and the [[Nicollet Mall]] brought with them a heyday for downtown.{{sfn|Nathanson|2010|p=175}} === Social tension === {{main|List of incidents of civil unrest in Minneapolis–Saint Paul|2020–2023 Minneapolis–Saint Paul racial unrest}} In many ways, the 20th century was a difficult time of bigotry and malfeasance, beginning with four decades of corruption.{{sfn|Weber|2022|p=71}} Known initially as a kindly physician, mayor [[A. A. Ames|Doc Ames]] made his brother police chief, ran the city into crime, and tried to leave town in 1902 according to historian Iric Nathanson.{{sfn|Nathanson|2010|pp=41–47}} [[Lincoln Steffens]] published Ames's story in "The Shame of Minneapolis" in 1903.<ref>{{cite news |title = Goodwin's 'The Bully Pulpit' spotlights the Shame of Minneapolis |url = https://www.minnpost.com/politics-policy/2013/12/goodwin-s-bully-pulpit-spotlights-shame-minneapolis/ |date = December 2, 2013 |last1 = Nathanson |first1 = Iric |work = [[MinnPost]] |access-date = December 10, 2020 |archive-date = August 17, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210817022104/https://www.minnpost.com/politics-policy/2013/12/goodwin-s-bully-pulpit-spotlights-shame-minneapolis/ |url-status = live }}</ref> The [[Ku Klux Klan]] was a force in the city from 1921{{sfn|Hatle|Vaillancourt|2009–2010|p=362}} until 1923.{{sfn|Chalmers|1987|p=149}} The gangster [[Kid Cann]] engaged in bribery and intimidation between the 1920s and the 1940s.{{sfn|Nathanson|2010|p=58}} After Minnesota passed a [[eugenics]] law in 1925, the proprietors of [[Eitel Hospital]] [[sterilization (medicine)|sterilized]] people at [[Faribault State Hospital]].{{sfn|Ladd-Taylor|2005|p=242|loc="[[George G. Eitel|Eitel]], the founder of the private Eitel Hospital and a vice-president of Dight's eugenics society, performed the first 150 surgeries; his nephew George D. Eitel took over the work after the old man died in 1928"}} [[File:Open battle between striking teamsters armed with pipes and the police in the streets of Minneapolis, 06-1934 - NARA - 541925.jpg|thumb|alt=group of men holding pipes confronting police on street seen from above|[[Minneapolis general strike of 1934|Battle between striking teamsters and police]], 1934. The May ''(pictured)'' and subsequent July battles killed four men, two on each side.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://slphistory.org/dunnebrothers/|title=The Teamsters Strike of 1934|publisher=St Louis Park Historical Society|access-date=June 25, 2023|archive-date=June 25, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230625183654/https://slphistory.org/dunnebrothers/|url-status=live}}</ref>]] The city was relatively unsegregated before 1910,<ref name="ab" /> with a Black population of less than one percent,<ref name=Kaul>{{cite news |url = https://www.minnpost.com/metro/2019/02/with-covenants-racism-was-written-into-minneapolis-housing-the-scars-are-still-visible/ |title = With covenants, racism was written into Minneapolis housing. The scars are still visible |last = Kaul |first = Greta |date = February 22, 2019 |access-date = March 5, 2023 |work = [[MinnPost]] |archive-date = March 6, 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230306005609/https://www.minnpost.com/metro/2019/02/with-covenants-racism-was-written-into-minneapolis-housing-the-scars-are-still-visible/ |url-status = live }}</ref> when a developer wrote the first restrictive covenant based on race and ethnicity into a Minneapolis deed.{{sfn|Walker|Ramer|Derickson|Keeler|2023|p=6|loc="The first racial covenant in Minneapolis was recorded by Edmund Walton in 1910..."}} Realtors adopted the practice, thousands of times preventing non-Whites from owning or leasing properties;{{sfn|Delegard|Ehrman-Solberg|2017|pp=73–74|loc="...the Seven Oaks Corporation, a real estate developer that inserted this same language into thousands of deeds across the city."}} this practice continued for four decades until the city became more and more racially divided.{{sfn|Walker|Ramer|Derickson|Keeler|2023|p=5|loc="...the Mapping Prejudice team showed that, prior to the introduction of covenants in 1910, the residences of people of color were dispersed throughout the city, yet as developers added thousands of racial covenants to deeds in Minneapolis until 1955, the city's neighborhoods became increasingly racially segregated"}} Though such language was prohibited by state law in 1953 and by the federal [[Civil Rights Act of 1968|Fair Housing Act of 1968]],{{sfn|Delegard|Ehrman-Solberg|2017|p=75}} restrictive covenants against minorities remained in many Minneapolis deeds as of the 2020s, and in 2021 the city gave residents a means to discharge them.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.startribune.com/minneapolis-starts-program-to-disavow-racial-covenants/600029949/ |date = March 3, 2021 |author = Navratil, Liz |title = Minneapolis starts program to disavow racial covenants |work =[[Star Tribune]]|access-date = March 4, 2021 |archive-date = August 17, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210817055442/https://www.startribune.com/minneapolis-starts-program-to-disavow-racial-covenants/600029949/ |url-status = live }}</ref> During the summer of 1934 and the financial downturn of the Great Depression, the [[Citizens' Alliance]], an association of employers, refused to negotiate with [[International Brotherhood of Teamsters|teamsters]]. The truck drivers [[trade union|union]] executed [[Minneapolis general strike of 1934|strike]]s in May and July–August.<ref>{{cite news|title=Remembering the truckers strike of 1934|last=Nathanson|first=Iric|date=July 22, 2008|access-date=June 8, 2023|url=https://www.minnpost.com/politics-policy/2008/07/remembering-truckers-strike-1934/|work=[[MinnPost]]|archive-date=June 8, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608211702/https://www.minnpost.com/politics-policy/2008/07/remembering-truckers-strike-1934/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Charles Rumford Walker]] explains in his book ''American City'' that Minneapolis teamsters succeeded in part due to the "military precision of the strike machine".{{sfn|Walker|1937|pp=98–99}} The union victory ultimately led to [[National Labor Relations Act of 1935|1935]] and [[Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938|1938]] federal laws protecting workers' rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://teamster.org/about/teamster-history/the-minneapolis-strike/|title=The Minneapolis Strike|date=February 4, 2020|access-date=June 6, 2023|publisher=[[International Brotherhood of Teamsters]]|archive-date=June 6, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606211501/https://teamster.org/about/teamster-history/the-minneapolis-strike/|url-status=live}}</ref> From the end of World War I in 1918 until 1950, [[antisemitism]] was commonplace in Minneapolis—[[Carey McWilliams (journalist)|Carey McWilliams]] called the city the anti-Semitic capital of the US.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://religionsmn.carleton.edu/exhibits/show/st-louis-park-eruv-jewish/history/anti-semtisim-in-minneapolis |title = Anti-Semitism in Minneapolis |work = Religions in Minnesota|publisher=[[Carleton College]]|access-date = September 24, 2021 |archive-date = June 15, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210615182209/https://religionsmn.carleton.edu/exhibits/show/st-louis-park-eruv-jewish/history/anti-semtisim-in-minneapolis |url-status = live }}</ref> A [[hate group]] called the [[Silver Legion of America]] held meetings in the city from 1936 to 1938.{{sfn|Weber|1991|p=172}} In the 1940s, mayor [[Hubert Humphrey]] worked to rescue the city's reputation,{{sfn|Caro|2002|pp=440, 454}} and helped the city establish the country's first [[Fair Employment Practices Commission|fair employment practices]] and a human-relations council that interceded on behalf of minorities.{{sfn|Reichard|1998|p=62}} However, the lives of Black people had not been improved.<ref name="ab" /> In 1966 and 1967—years of significant [[Long, hot summer of 1967|turmoil across the US]]—suppressed anger among the Black population was released in two disturbances on Plymouth Avenue.{{sfn|Nathanson|2010|loc=Chapter 4: Plymouth Avenue Is Burning}} A coalition reached a peaceful outcome but again failed to solve Black poverty and unemployment. [[Prince (musician)|Prince]], who was [[school integration in the United States|bused]] to fourth grade in 1967, said in retrospect, "he believed that Minnesota at that time was no more enlightened than segregationist Alabama had been".<ref>{{cite news|title=Prince co-author details 'extremely unlikely' story behind new memoir in New Yorker article|last=Riemenschneider|first=Chris|date=September 5, 2019|access-date=May 17, 2023|work=[[Star Tribune]]|url=https://www.startribune.com/prince-co-author-details-extremely-unlikely-story-behind-new-memoir-in-new-yorker-article/559478242/|archive-date=May 17, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517221810/https://www.startribune.com/prince-co-author-details-extremely-unlikely-story-behind-new-memoir-in-new-yorker-article/559478242/|url-status=live}}</ref> Between 1958 and 1963—in the largest [[urban renewal]] plan undertaken in America {{as of|2022|lc=y}}{{sfn|Weber|2022|p=128}}—Minneapolis demolished "[[Skid row#Minneapolis|skid row]]". Gone were {{convert|35|acre|ha|adj=off|sigfig=1}} with more than 200 buildings, or roughly 40 percent of downtown, including the [[Gateway District (Minneapolis)|Gateway District]] and its significant architecture, such as the [[Metropolitan Building (Minneapolis)|Metropolitan Building]].<ref name=Hart /> Efforts to save the building failed but encouraged interest in historic preservation.<ref name=Hart>{{cite news |last = Hart |first = Joseph |title = Room at the Bottom |work = [[City Pages]] |volume = 19 |issue = 909 |date = May 6, 1998 |url = http://www.citypages.com/1998-05-06/news/room-at-the-bottom/ |access-date = December 7, 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100401180715/http://www.citypages.com/1998-05-06/news/room-at-the-bottom/ |archive-date = April 1, 2010 }}</ref> In 1968, [[Indian Relocation Act of 1956|relocated]] Native Americans founded the [[American Indian Movement]]{{sfn|Weber|2022|page=141|loc="Explaining the name, [[Clyde Bellecourt]] remembered Alberta Downwind saying at AIM's founding: ''Indian'' is the word that they used to oppress us. ''Indian'' is the word we'll use to gain our freedom"}} in Minneapolis,{{sfn|Davis|2013|p=33}} and its [[Heart of the Earth Survival School|A.I.M. Survival School]], later called Heart of the Earth,{{sfn|Davis|2013|p=6}} taught native traditions to children until closing in 2008.{{sfn|Davis|2013|p=193}} In a backlash of the "dominant" White voters, [[Charles Stenvig]], a law-and-order candidate, became mayor in 1969, and governed for a decade until 1977.{{sfn|Weber|2022|pp=139}}{{sfn|Nathanson|2010|pp=126–130, 132}} After their marriage license was denied in 1970, a same-sex Minneapolis couple appealed all the way to the US Supreme Court in ''[[Baker v. Nelson]].''<ref name=Mumford>{{cite news|title=For Mpls. couple, gay marriage ruling is a victory 43 years in the making|last=Mumford|first=Tracy|date=July 16, 2015|access-date=June 2, 2023|url=https://www.mprnews.org/story/2015/07/16/baker-mcconnell|work=[[MPR News]]|archive-date=June 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605160544/https://www.mprnews.org/story/2015/07/16/baker-mcconnell|url-status=live}}</ref> They managed to get a license and marry in 1971,<ref name=Mumford /> forty years before [[Same-sex marriage in Minnesota|Minnesota legalized same-sex marriage]] in 2013, and ''[[Obergefell v. Hodges]]'' did so nationwide in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|work=Minnesota Issues Resource Guides|url=https://www.lrl.mn.gov/guides/guides?issue=samesexmarriage|title=Same-Sex Marriage in Minnesota|date=July 2022|publisher=Minnesota Legislative Reference Library|access-date=June 5, 2023|archive-date=June 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605160446/https://www.lrl.mn.gov/guides/guides?issue=samesexmarriage|url-status=live}}</ref> Immigration helped to curb the city's mid-20th century population decline. But because of a few radicalized persons, the city's large Somali population was targeted with discrimination after [[September 11 attacks|9/11]], when its [[hawala]]s or banks were closed.{{sfn|Weber|2022|pp=158–159}} On May 25, 2020, 17-year-old [[Darnella Frazier]] recorded the [[murder of George Floyd]];<ref>{{cite news |title = Damning Report After Floyd Murder Finds Rampant Police Discrimination in Minneapolis |url = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-04-27/report-damns-minneapolis-police-after-george-floyd-murder-read-full-text#xj4y7vzkg |last = Ceron |first = Ella |date = April 27, 2022 |access-date = March 12, 2023 |work = [[Bloomberg News]] |archive-date = May 12, 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220512071727/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-04-27/report-damns-minneapolis-police-after-george-floyd-murder-read-full-text#xj4y7vzkg |url-status = live }}</ref> her video contradicted the police department's initial statement.<ref>{{cite news |title = How a teenager's video upended the police department's initial tale. |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/20/us/darnella-frazier-floyd-video.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210421150451/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/20/us/darnella-frazier-floyd-video.html |archive-date = April 21, 2021 |url-access = subscription |url-status = live |author = Paybarah, Azi |date = April 20, 2021 |access-date = April 21, 2021 |work = [[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Floyd, an African American man, suffocated when [[Derek Chauvin]], a White Minneapolis police officer, knelt on his neck and back for more than nine minutes. While Floyd was neither the first nor the last Black man killed by Minneapolis police,<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.vox.com/first-person/2020/6/1/21276309/george-floyd-police-protests-minneapolis-black-lives-matter |title = Decades of tensions between Minneapolis police and Black communities have led to this moment |date = June 1, 2020 |access-date = March 10, 2023 |last1 = Montgomery |first1 = Kandace |last2 = Noor |first2 = Miski |work = [[Vox (website)|Vox]] |publisher = [[Vox Media]] |archive-date = March 10, 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230310213208/https://www.vox.com/first-person/2020/6/1/21276309/george-floyd-police-protests-minneapolis-black-lives-matter |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/crime/amir-locke-george-floyd-minneapolis-police-b2022815.html |title = From George Floyd to Amir Locke, have Minneapolis police learned nothing? |date = March 1, 2022 |access-date = March 11, 2023 |work = [[The Independent]] |last1 = Marcus |first1 = Josh |archive-date = March 11, 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230311142322/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/crime/amir-locke-george-floyd-minneapolis-police-b2022815.html |url-status = live }}</ref> his murder sparked international rebellions and mass protests.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.cbsnews.com/news/george-floyd-black-lives-matter-impact/ |title = The global impact of George Floyd: How Black Lives Matter protests shaped movements around the world |date = June 4, 2021 |last1 = Silverstein |first1 = Jason |access-date = March 10, 2023 |work = [[CBS News]] |publisher = [[CBS Interactive]] |archive-date = June 5, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210605000855/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/george-floyd-black-lives-matter-impact/ |url-status = live }}</ref> Reporting on [[George Floyd protests in Minneapolis–Saint Paul|the local insurgency]], ''The New York Times'' said that "over three nights, a five-mile stretch of Minneapolis sustained extraordinary damage"<ref name="Stockman (4 July 2020)">{{Cite news |last = Stockman |first = Farah |date = July 3, 2020 |title = 'They Have Lost Control': Why Minneapolis Burned |language = en-US |work =[[The New York Times]]|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/03/us/minneapolis-government-george-floyd.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200703221016/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/03/us/minneapolis-government-george-floyd.html |archive-date = July 3, 2020 |url-access = subscription |url-status = live |access-date = February 6, 2021 }}</ref>—destruction included a police station that demonstrators overran and set on fire.<ref name="Caputo et al (30 June 2020)">{{cite news |last1 = Caputo |first1 = Angela |last2 = Craft |first2 = Will |last3 = Gilbert |first3 = Curtis |date = June 30, 2020 |url = https://www.mprnews.org/story/2020/06/30/the-precinct-is-on-fire-what-happened-at-minneapolis-3rd-precinct-and-what-it-means |title = 'The precinct is on fire': What happened at Minneapolis' 3rd Precinct—and what it means |work =[[MPR News]] |access-date = July 1, 2020 |archive-date = November 10, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211110091618/https://www.mprnews.org/story/2020/06/30/the-precinct-is-on-fire-what-happened-at-minneapolis-3rd-precinct-and-what-it-means |url-status = live }}</ref> The Twin Cities experienced [[2020–2022 Minneapolis–Saint Paul racial unrest|ongoing unrest]] over racial injustice from 2020 to 2022.{{sfn|Mitchell|2022|p=44|loc="Two years have passed since Floyd was killed, but the site where he died...continues to be contested space—an ongoing site of protest—but also a sacred location"}} === Structural racism === Minneapolis has a history of [[societal racism|structural racism]]<ref>{{cite magazine |title = George Floyd's Death and the Long History of Racism in Minneapolis |url = https://time.com/5844030/george-floyd-minneapolis-history/ |author = Waxman, Olivia B. |date = June 2, 2020 |magazine = [[Time (magazine)|Time]] |quote = Delegard told ''Time'', 'Structural racism is really baked into the geography of this city and as a result it really permeates every institution in this city.' |access-date = November 17, 2022 |archive-date = November 17, 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221117002036/https://time.com/5844030/george-floyd-minneapolis-history/ |url-status = live|postscript=, }}</ref> and has racial disparities in nearly every aspect of society.<ref name=Mpls2040>{{cite web |quote = ...in 2010, Minneapolis led the nation in having the widest unemployment disparity between African-American and white residents. This remains true in 2018. And disparities also exist in nearly every other measurable social aspect, including of economic, housing, safety and health outcomes, between people of color and indigenous people compared with white people." and "In Minneapolis, 83 percent of white non-Hispanics have more than a high school education, compared with 47 percent of black people and 45 percent of American Indians. Only 32 percent of Hispanics have more than a high school education. |url = https://minneapolis2040.com/goals/eliminate-disparities/ |title = Goals: 1. Eliminate disparities |work = Department of Community Planning & Economic Development|publisher=City of Minneapolis |access-date = November 17, 2022 |archive-date = November 17, 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221117184308/https://minneapolis2040.com/goals/eliminate-disparities/ |url-status = live }}</ref> Some historians and commentators have said White Minneapolitans used discrimination based on race against the city's non-White residents. As White settlers displaced the indigenous population during the 19th century, they claimed the city's land,<ref>{{cite news |title = How did Minn. become one of the most racially inequitable states? |url = https://www.startribune.com/how-did-minnesota-become-one-of-the-most-racially-inequitable-states/547537761/ |first1 = Randy |last1 = Furst |first2 = MaryJo |last2 = Webster |date = September 6, 2019 |access-date = May 27, 2021 |work =[[Star Tribune]]|quote = The privileges of whites go back much further ... to when American Indians were forced off their land in the 1860s. |archive-date = June 2, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213424/https://www.startribune.com/how-did-minnesota-become-one-of-the-most-racially-inequitable-states/547537761/ |url-status = live }}</ref> and Kirsten Delegard of [[Mapping Prejudice]] explains that today's disparities evolved from control of the land.<ref name="ab">{{cite news |title = Why This Started in Minneapolis |url = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-06-05/revealing-the-divisive-history-of-minneapolis |author = Holder, Sarah |date = June 5, 2020 |access-date = May 27, 2021 |publisher = [[Bloomberg L.P.]]|work=[[Bloomberg L.P.#CityLab|CityLab]] |archive-date = August 17, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210817094227/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-06-05/revealing-the-divisive-history-of-minneapolis |url-status = live }}</ref> Discrimination increased when flour milling moved to the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] and the economy declined.{{sfn|Weber|2022|pp=84, 88}} The [[Interstate 35W (Minnesota)|I-35W highway]] built in 1959 under the [[Interstate Highway System]]<ref>{{cite news|title=The Minnesota Paradox|url=https://www.minnesotaalumni.org/stories/the-minnesota-paradox|last=Larsen|first=Elizabeth Foy|date=Fall 2020|access-date=May 28, 2023|work=Minnesota Alumni|publisher=[[University of Minnesota]]|archive-date=May 28, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528223148/https://www.minnesotaalumni.org/stories/the-minnesota-paradox|url-status=live}}</ref> cut through Black and Mexican neighborhoods.{{sfn|Weber|2022|p=132|loc=35W "...went through a Mexican and Black neighborhood"}} The foundation laid by racial [[covenant (law)|covenant]]s on residential segregation, property value, homeownership, wealth, housing security, access to green spaces, trees and parks, and health equity shapes the lives of people in 2022.<ref>{{cite web|title=What is a Covenent: How racial covenants impact us today|publisher=[[University of Minnesota]]|access-date=May 28, 2023|url=https://mappingprejudice.umn.edu/racial-covenants/what-is-a-covenant|archive-date=May 28, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528221509/https://mappingprejudice.umn.edu/racial-covenants/what-is-a-covenant|url-status=live}}</ref> The city wrote in a decennial plan that racially discriminatory federal housing policies starting in the 1930s "prevented access to mortgages in areas with Jews, African-Americans and other minorities", and "left a lasting effect on the physical characteristics of the city and the financial well-being of its residents."<ref>{{cite web |url = https://minneapolis2040.com/goals/eliminate-disparities/ |title = Goals: 1. Eliminate disparities |work = Department of Community Planning & Economic Development |publisher = City of Minneapolis |access-date = June 22, 2023 |archive-date = November 17, 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221117184308/https://minneapolis2040.com/goals/eliminate-disparities/ |url-status = live }}</ref> Discussing a [[Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis]] report on how systemic racism compromises education in Minnesota,<ref>Factors outlined include racial gaps in opportunity, limited pre-school subsidy programs, educator bias, differences in families' and schools' economic resources, less-experienced teachers, and completion rate gaps. {{cite report|quote=This article highlights evidence of how systemic racism undermines the education system in Minnesota.|title=Minnesota's education system shows persistent opportunity gaps by race|url=https://www.minneapolisfed.org/article/2021/minnesotas-education-system-shows-persistent-opportunity-gaps-by-race|date=January 11, 2021|access-date=June 18, 2023|publisher=[[Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis]]|first1=Rob|last1=Grunewald|first2=Ben|last2=Horowitz|first3=Kim-Eng|last3=Ky|first4=Alene|last4=Tchourumoff|archive-date=June 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618150432/https://www.minneapolisfed.org/article/2021/minnesotas-education-system-shows-persistent-opportunity-gaps-by-race|url-status=live}}</ref> Professor [[Keith Mayes]] says, "So the housing disparities created the educational disparities that we still live with today."<ref name=Mayes>{{cite news|url=https://www.kare11.com/article/news/local/george-floyd/a-look-at-the-history-of-racial-covenants-and-housing-discrimination-in-minneapolis/89-f1cacace-6655-42b5-b0a7-d5a6651d63b4|title=A look at the history of racial covenants and housing discrimination in Minneapolis|author=Wigdahl, Heidi|date=June 11, 2020|access-date=April 24, 2021|work=[[KARE (TV)|KARE-TV News]]|archive-date=February 15, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215133903/https://www.kare11.com/article/news/local/george-floyd/a-look-at-the-history-of-racial-covenants-and-housing-discrimination-in-minneapolis/89-f1cacace-6655-42b5-b0a7-d5a6651d63b4|url-status=live}}</ref> Professor [[Samuel Myers Jr.]] says of [[redlining]], "Policing policies evolved that substituted explicit racial profiling with scientific management of racially disparate arrests. {{nowrap|... racially}} discriminatory policies became institutionalized and 'baked in' to the fabric of Minnesota life."<ref>{{cite web|title=The Minnesota Paradox|url=https://www.hhh.umn.edu/research-centers/roy-wilkins-center-human-relations-and-social-justice/minnesota-paradox|last=Myers|first=Samuel L. Jr.|access-date=May 29, 2023|publisher=[[University of Minnesota]]|archive-date=May 29, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529040243/https://www.hhh.umn.edu/research-centers/roy-wilkins-center-human-relations-and-social-justice/minnesota-paradox|url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|Separately, Myers describes how the Minneapolis police department's adoption of CODEFOR in 1998 increased policing in areas of Minneapolis that were disproportionately nonwhite, with dual results: "Minority residents are afforded improved safety and law enforcement services; minority offenders unsurprisingly may be disproportionately apprehended for relatively minor transgressions in order to achieve the higher levels of safety."{{sfn|Myers|2002}}}} In 2020, government efforts to address these disparities include declaring racism a [[public health emergency (United States)|public health emergency]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Minneapolis declares racism a public health emergency|last=McNamara|first=Audrey|date=July 17, 2020|access-date=May 18, 2023|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/minneapolis-racism-public-health-emergency/|work=[[CBS News]]|publisher=[[CBS Interactive]]|archive-date=May 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518173123/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/minneapolis-racism-public-health-emergency/|url-status=live}}</ref> and zoning changes passed by the 2018 [[Minneapolis City Council]] 2040 plan.<ref>{{cite news|title=Minneapolis Has A Bold Plan To Tackle Racial Inequity. Now It Has To Follow Through|last=Sommer|first=Laura|date=June 18, 2020|access-date=May 18, 2023|work=[[NPR]]|url=https://www.npr.org/2020/06/18/877460056/minneapolis-has-a-bold-plan-to-tackle-racial-inequity-now-it-has-to-follow-throu|archive-date=May 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518170735/https://www.npr.org/2020/06/18/877460056/minneapolis-has-a-bold-plan-to-tackle-racial-inequity-now-it-has-to-follow-throu|url-status=live}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page