Joseph Stalin

==Early life==
{{Main|Early life of Joseph Stalin}}

=== 1878–1899: Childhood to young adulthood ===
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| footer = 1893 class table of Gori Religious School including a photo of Stalin. Some of the photos may be from earlier dates, but it is believed that this photo of Stalin was taken in 1893.
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Stalin was born in [[Georgia within the Russian Empire|Georgia]] in the town of [[Gori, Georgia|Gori]],{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=2|2a1=Khlevniuk|2y=2015|2p=11}} then part of the [[Tiflis Governorate]] of the [[Russian Empire]] and home to a mix of [[Georgians]], [[Azerbaijanis]], [[Armenians]], [[Russians]], and Jews.{{sfn|Service|2004|p=15}} He was born on {{OldStyleDate|18 December|1878|6 December}}{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=14|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=23}}{{efn|Although there is inconsistency among published sources about Stalin's exact date of birth, Ioseb Jughashvili is found in the records of the Uspensky Church in Gori, Georgia as born on 18 December ([[Julian calendar|Old Style]]: 6 December) 1878. This birth date is maintained in his school leaving certificate, his extensive [[Okhrana]] file, a police arrest record from 18 April 1902 which gave his age as 23 years, and all other surviving pre-Revolution documents. As late as 1921, Stalin himself listed his birthday as 18 December 1878 in a curriculum vitae in his own handwriting. After coming to power in 1922, Stalin gave his birth date as 21 December 1879 ([[Adoption of the Gregorian calendar#Adoption in Eastern Europe|Old Style date]] 9 December 1879). That became the day his birthday was celebrated in the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=23}}}} and baptised on 29 December.{{sfn|Service|2004|p=16}} His birth name was Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili,{{efn|name="birth_name"}} and he was nicknamed "Soso", a [[diminutive]] of "[[Ioseb]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=11|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=16|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=23|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=17}} His parents were [[Besarion Jughashvili]] and [[Ekaterine Geladze]].{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1pp=1–2|2a1=Volkogonov|2y=1991|2p=5|3a1=Service|3y=2004|3p=14|4a1=Montefiore|4y=2007|4p=19|5a1=Khlevniuk|5y=2015|5p=11|6a1=Deutscher|6y=1966|6p=26}} He was their only child to survive past infancy.{{sfnm|1a1=Volkogonov|1y=1991|1p=5|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=16|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=22|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=17|5a1=Khlevniuk|5y=2015|5p=11}}

Besarion was a cobbler who was employed in a workshop owned by another man;{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=5|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=14|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=22|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=16}} it was initially a financial success but later fell into decline,{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=16|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2pp=22, 32}} and the family found itself living in poverty.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=11|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=19}} Besarion became an alcoholic{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=17|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=25|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=20|4a1=Khlevniuk|4y=2015|4p=12}} and drunkenly beat his wife and son.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=10|2a1=Volkogonov|2y=1991|2p=5|3a1=Service|3y=2004|3p=17|4a1=Montefiore|4y=2007|4p=29|5a1=Kotkin|5y=2014|5p=24|6a1=Khlevniuk|6y=2015|6p=12}} Ekaterine and Stalin left the home by 1883 and began a wandering life, moving through nine different rented rooms over the next decade.{{sfnm|1a1=Montefiore|1y=2007|1pp=30–31|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2p=20}} In 1886, they moved into the house of a family friend, Father Christopher Charkviani.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=12|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=31|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3pp=20–21}} Ekaterine worked as a house cleaner and launderer and was determined to send her son to school.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|pp=31–32}} In September 1888, Stalin enrolled at the Orthodox Gori Church School,{{sfn|Dović|Helgason|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nimVDwAAQBAJ&dq=gori+church+school+orthodox&pg=RA1-PA56 256]}} a place secured by Charkviani.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=11|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=20|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3pp=32–34|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=21}} Although he got into many fights,{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=20|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=36}} Stalin excelled academically,{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=12|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=30|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=44|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=26}} displaying talent in painting and drama classes,{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|pp=43–44}} writing [[Stalin's poetry|his own poetry]],{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=44}} and singing as a choirboy.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=13|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=30|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=43|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=26}} Stalin faced several severe health problems: An 1884 [[smallpox]] infection left him with facial scars;{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=12|2a1=Volkogonov|2y=1991|2p=5|3a1=Service|3y=2004|3p=19|4a1=Montefiore|4y=2007|4p=31|5a1=Kotkin|5y=2014|5p=20}} and at age 12 he was seriously injured when he was hit by a [[Phaeton (carriage)|phaeton]], probably the cause of a lifelong disability in his left arm.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=12|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=25|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3pp=35, 46|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4pp=20–21}}

[[File:The Orthodox Theological Seminary.jpg|thumb|left|In 1894, Stalin began his studies at the Tiflis Theological Seminary (pictured here in the 1870s).]]
In August 1894, Stalin enrolled in the [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] [[Tbilisi Theological Seminary|Theological Seminary in Tiflis]], enabled by a scholarship that allowed him to study at a reduced rate.{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=28|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2pp=51–53|3a1=Khlevniuk|3y=2015|3p=15}} He joined 600 trainee priests who boarded there,{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|pp=54–55}} and he achieved high grades.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=19|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=36|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=56|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=32|5a1=Khlevniuk|5y=2015|5p=16}} He continued writing poetry; five of his poems, on themes such as nature, land and patriotism, were published under the pseudonym of "Soselo" in [[Ilia Chavchavadze]]'s newspaper ''[[Iveria (newspaper)|Iveria]]'' (''Georgia'').{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=18|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=38|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=57|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=33}} According to Stalin's biographer [[Simon Sebag Montefiore]], they became "minor Georgian classics"{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=58}} and were included in various anthologies of Georgian poetry over the coming years.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=58}} As he grew older, Stalin lost interest in priestly studies, his grades dropped,{{sfnm|1a1=Montefiore|1y=2007|1p=69|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2p=32|3a1=Khlevniuk|3y=2015|3p=18}} and he was repeatedly confined to a cell for his rebellious behaviour.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=19|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=69|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3pp=36–37|4a1=Khlevniuk|4y=2015|4p=19}} The seminary's journal noted that he declared himself an atheist, stalked out of prayers and refused to doff his hat to monks.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|pp=70–71}}

Stalin joined a forbidden book club at the school;{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=19|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=62|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3pp=36, 37|4a1=Khlevniuk|4y=2015|4p=18}} he was particularly influenced by [[Nikolay Chernyshevsky]]'s 1863 pro-revolutionary novel ''[[What Is to Be Done? (novel)|What Is To Be Done?]]''{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=63}} Another influential text was [[Alexander Kazbegi]]'s ''[[The Patricide]]'', with Stalin adopting the nickname "Koba" from that of the book's bandit protagonist.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=14|2a1=Volkogonov|2y=1991|2p=5|3a1=Service|3y=2004|3pp=27–28|4a1=Montefiore|4y=2007|4p=63|5a1=Kotkin|5y=2014|5pp=23–24|6a1=Khlevniuk|6y=2015|6p=17}} The pseudonym may also have been a tribute to his wealthy benefactor, Yakobi "Koba" Egnatashvili, who paid for his schooling at the Tiflis seminary. ("Koba" is the Georgian diminutive of Yakobi, or Jacob, and Stalin later named [[Yakov Dzhugashvili|his first-born son]] in Egnatashvili's honour.){{sfnm|1a1=Brackman|1y=2004|1p=7|2a1=Montefiore, 6 September 2007}} He also read ''[[Das Kapital]]'', the 1867 book by German sociological theorist [[Karl Marx]].{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=38|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=64}} Stalin devoted himself to Marx's socio-political theory, [[Marxism]],{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=69}} which was then on the rise in Georgia, one of various forms of [[socialism]] opposed to the [[Tsarist empire]]'s authorities.{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=40|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2p=43}} At night, he attended secret workers' meetings{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=66}} and was introduced to [[Silibistro Jibladze|Silibistro "Silva" Jibladze]], the Marxist founder of [[Mesame Dasi]] ("Third Group"), a Georgian socialist group.{{sfnm|1a1=Montefiore|1y=2007|1p=65|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2p=44}} Stalin left the seminary in April 1899 and never returned.{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=41|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=71}}

=== 1899–1904: Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party ===
[[File:Stalin 1902.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|Police photograph of Stalin, taken in 1902]]
In October 1899, Stalin began work as a meteorologist at the Tiflis observatory.{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=54|2a1=Conquest|2y=1991|2p=27|3a1=Service|3y=2004|3pp=43–44|4a1=Montefiore|4y=2007|4p=76|5a1=Kotkin|5y=2014|5pp=47–48}} He had a light workload and therefore had plenty of time for revolutionary activity. He attracted a group of supporters through his classes in socialist theory{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=79}} and co-organised a secret workers' mass meeting for [[International Workers' Day|May Day]] 1900,{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=54|2a1=Conquest|2y=1991|2p=27|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=78}} at which he successfully encouraged many of the men to take strike action.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=78}} By this point, the empire's secret police, the [[Okhrana]], were aware of Stalin's activities in Tiflis' revolutionary milieu.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=78}} They attempted to arrest him in March 1901, but he escaped and went into hiding,{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=27|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=45|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3pp=81–82|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=49}} living off the donations of friends and sympathisers.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=82}} Remaining underground, he helped plan a demonstration for May Day 1901, in which 3,000 marchers clashed with the authorities.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=28|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=82|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=50}} He continued to evade arrest by using aliases and sleeping in different apartments.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=87}} In November 1901, he was elected to the Tiflis Committee of the [[Russian Social Democratic Labour Party]] (RSDLP), a Marxist party founded in 1898.{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=63|2a1=Rieber|2y=2005|2pp=37–38|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3pp=87–88}}

That month, Stalin travelled to the port city of [[Batumi]].{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=29|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=52|3a1=Rieber|3y=2005|3p=39|4a1=Montefiore|4y=2007|4p=101|5a1=Kotkin|5y=2014|5p=51}} His militant rhetoric proved divisive among the city's Marxists, some of whom suspected that he might be an ''[[agent provocateur]]'' working for the government.{{sfnm|1a1=Montefiore|1y=2007|1pp=91, 95|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2p=53}} He found employment at the [[Rothschild family|Rothschild]] refinery storehouse, where he co-organised two workers' strikes.{{sfnm|1a1=Montefiore|1y=2007|1pp=90–93|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2p=51|3a1=Khlevniuk|3y=2015|3pp=22–23}} After several strike leaders were arrested, he co-organised a mass public demonstration which led to the storming of the prison; troops fired upon the demonstrators, 13 of whom were killed.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=29|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=49|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3pp=94–95|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=52|5a1=Khlevniuk|5y=2015|5p=23}} Stalin organised another mass demonstration on the day of their funeral,{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|pp=97–98}} before being arrested in April 1902.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=29|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=49|3a1=Rieber|3y=2005|3p=42|4a1=Montefiore|4y=2007|4p=98|5a1=Kotkin|5y=2014|5p=52}} Held first in Batumi Prison{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=67|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=52|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=101}} and then Kutaisi Prison,{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=67|2a1=Conquest|2y=1991|2p=29|3a1=Service|3y=2004|3p=52|4a1=Montefiore|4y=2007|4p=105}} in mid-1903 he was sentenced to three years of exile in eastern Siberia.{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=68|2a1=Conquest|2y=1991|2p=29|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=107|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=53|5a1=Khlevniuk|5y=2015|5p=23}}

Stalin left Batumi in October, arriving at the small Siberian town of [[Novaya Uda, Irkutsk Oblast|Novaya Uda]] in late November 1903.{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=75|2a1=Conquest|2y=1991|2p=29|3a1=Service|3y=2004|3p=52|4a1=Montefiore|4y=2007|4pp=108–110}} There, he lived in a two-room peasant's house, sleeping in the building's larder.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=111}} He made two escape attempts: On the first, he made it to [[Balagansk]] before returning due to [[frostbite]].{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=52|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2pp=114–115}} His second attempt, in January 1904, was successful and he made it to Tiflis.{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=52|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2pp=115–116|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=53}} There, he co-edited a Georgian Marxist newspaper, ''[[Proletariatis Brdzola]]'' ("Proletarian Struggle"), with [[Filipp Makharadze]].{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=57|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=123}} He called for the Georgian Marxist movement to split from its Russian counterpart, resulting in several RSDLP members accusing him of holding views contrary to the ethos of [[Proletarian internationalism|Marxist internationalism]] and calling for his expulsion from the party; he soon recanted his opinions.{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=54|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2pp=117–118|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=77}} During his exile, the RSDLP had split between [[Vladimir Lenin]]'s "[[Bolsheviks]]" and [[Julius Martov]]'s "[[Mensheviks]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1pp=33–34|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=53|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=113|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4pp=78–79|5a1=Khlevniuk|5y=2015|5p=24}} Stalin detested many of the Mensheviks in Georgia and aligned himself with the Bolsheviks.{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=76|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=59|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=80|4a1=Khlevniuk|4y=2015|4p=24}} Although he established a Bolshevik stronghold in the mining town of [[Chiatura]],{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=131}} Bolshevism remained a minority force in the Menshevik-dominated Georgian revolutionary scene.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=38|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=59}}

=== 1905–1912: Revolution of 1905 and its aftermath ===
[[File:Lenin at Tampere.JPG|thumb|left|Stalin first met [[Vladimir Lenin]] at [[Tampere conference of 1905|a 1905 conference in Tampere]], in the [[Grand Duchy of Finland]]. Lenin became "Stalin's indispensable mentor".{{sfn|Kotkin|2014|p=81}}]]
In January 1905, government troops [[Bloody Sunday (1905)|massacred protesters]] in [[Saint Petersburg]]. Unrest soon spread across the Russian Empire in what came to be known as the [[Revolution of 1905]].{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=80|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=56|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=126}} Georgia was particularly affected.{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1pp=84–85|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=56}} Stalin was in [[Baku]] in February when [[Armenian–Tatar massacres of 1905–1907|ethnic violence]] broke out between Armenians and Azeris; at least 2,000 were killed.{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=58|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2pp=128–129}} He publicly lambasted the "pogroms against Jews and Armenians" as being part of Tsar [[Nicholas II]]'s attempts to "buttress his despicable throne".{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=129}} Stalin formed a Bolshevik Battle Squad which he used to try to keep Baku's warring ethnic factions apart; he also used the unrest as a cover for stealing printing equipment.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=129}} Amid the growing violence throughout Georgia he formed further Battle Squads, with the Mensheviks doing the same.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|pp=131–132}} Stalin's squads disarmed local police and troops,{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=132}} raided government arsenals,{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=143}} and raised funds through [[protection racket]]s on large local businesses and mines.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|pp=132–133}} They launched attacks on the government's [[Cossack]] troops and pro-Tsarist [[Black Hundreds]],{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=87|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2pp=135, 144}} co-ordinating some of their operations with the Menshevik militia.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=137}}

In November 1905, the Georgian Bolsheviks elected Stalin as one of their delegates to a Bolshevik conference in Saint Petersburg.{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1pp=89–90|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=60|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=145}} On arrival, he met Lenin's wife [[Nadezhda Krupskaya]], who informed him that the venue had been moved to [[Tampere]] in the [[Grand Duchy of Finland]].{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=145}} At [[Tampere conference of 1905|the conference]] Stalin met Lenin for the first time.{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=90|2a1=Conquest|2y=1991|2p=37|3a1=Service|3y=2004|3p=60|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=81}} Although Stalin held Lenin in deep respect, he was vocal in his disagreement with Lenin's view that the Bolsheviks should field candidates for the [[1906 Russian legislative election|forthcoming election]] to the [[State Duma (Russian Empire)|State Duma]]; Stalin saw the parliamentary process as a waste of time.{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=92|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=147|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=105}} In April 1906, Stalin attended the [[4th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party|RSDLP Fourth Congress]] in Stockholm; this was his first trip outside the Russian Empire.{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=94|2a1=Conquest|2y=1991|2pp=39–40|3a1=Service|3y=2004|3pp=61, 62|4a1=Montefiore|4y=2007|4p=156}} At the conference, the RSDLP — then led by its Menshevik majority — agreed that it would not raise funds using armed robbery.{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=96|2a1=Conquest|2y=1991|2p=40|3a1=Service|3y=2004|3p=62|4a1=Khlevniuk|4y=2015|4p=26}} Lenin and Stalin disagreed with this decision{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=96|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=62|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=113}} and later privately discussed how they could continue the robberies for the Bolshevik cause.{{sfnm|1a1=Montefiore|1y=2007|1p=168|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2p=113}}

Stalin married [[Kato Svanidze]] in an Orthodox church ceremony at [[Senaki]] in July 1906.{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=64|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=159|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=105|4a1=Semeraro|4y=2017|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bAXMDwAAQBAJ&dq=Kato+Svanidze+stalin+orthodox+church+1906&pg=PT87 ??]}} In March 1907 she bore a son, [[Yakov Dzhugashvili|Yakov]].{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=64|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=167|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=106|4a1=Khlevniuk|4y=2015|4p=25}} By that year — according to the historian [[Robert Service (historian)|Robert Service]] — Stalin had established himself as "Georgia's leading Bolshevik".{{sfn|Service|2004|p=65}} He attended the [[5th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party|Fifth RSDLP Congress]], held at the [[Brotherhood Church]] in London in May–June 1907.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=41|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=65|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3pp=178–180|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=108}} After returning to Tiflis, Stalin organised the [[1907 Tiflis bank robbery|robbing of a large delivery of money to the Imperial Bank]] in June 1907. His gang ambushed the armed convoy in [[Freedom Square, Tbilisi|Erivansky Square]] with gunfire and home-made bombs. Around 40 people were killed, but all of his gang escaped alive.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1pp=41–42|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=75|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=113}} After the heist, Stalin settled in Baku with his wife and son.{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=100|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=180|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=114}} There, Mensheviks confronted Stalin about the robbery and voted to expel him from the RSDLP, but he took no notice of them.{{sfnm|1a1=Deutscher|1y=1966|1p=100|2a1=Conquest|2y=1991|2pp=43–44|3a1=Service|3y=2004|3p=76|4a1=Montefiore|4y=2007|4p=184}}

[[File:Stalin's Mug Shot.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Mug shot|mugshot]] of Stalin made in 1911 by the [[Okhrana|Tsarist secret police]]]]
In Baku, Stalin secured Bolshevik domination of the local RSDLP branch{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=190}} and edited two Bolshevik newspapers, ''Bakinsky Proletary'' and ''Gudok'' ("Whistle").{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=186}} In August 1907, he attended the [[International Socialist Congress, Stuttgart 1907|Seventh Congress]] of the [[Second International]] — an international socialist organisation — in [[Stuttgart]], [[German Empire]].{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=189}} In November 1907, his wife died of [[typhus]],{{sfnm|1a1=Montefiore|1y=2007|1p=191|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2p=115}} and he left his son with her family in Tiflis.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=44|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=71|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=193|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=116}} In Baku he had reassembled his gang, the Outfit,{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=194}} which continued to attack Black Hundreds and raised finances by running protection rackets, counterfeiting currency, and carrying out robberies.{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=74|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=196|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=115}} They also kidnapped the children of several wealthy figures to extract ransom money.{{sfnm|1a1=Montefiore|1y=2007|1pp=197–198|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2p=115}} In early 1908, he travelled to the Swiss city of [[Geneva]] to meet with Lenin and the prominent Russian Marxist [[Georgi Plekhanov]], although the latter exasperated him.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=195}}

In March 1908, Stalin was arrested and interned in Bailov Prison in Baku.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=44|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=68|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=203|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=116}} There he led the imprisoned Bolsheviks, organised discussion groups, and ordered the killing of suspected informants.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=45|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2pp=203–204}} He was eventually sentenced to two years exile in the village of [[Solvychegodsk]], [[Vologda Oblast|Vologda Province]], arriving there in February 1909.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=45|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=68|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3pp=206, 208|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=116}} In June, he escaped the village and made it to [[Kotlas]] disguised as a woman and from there to Saint Petersburg.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=46|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=212|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=117}} In March 1910, he was arrested again and sent back to Solvychegodsk.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=46|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2pp=222, 226|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=121}} There he had affairs with at least two women; his landlady, Maria Kuzakova, later gave birth to his second son, [[Konstantin Kuzakov|Konstantin]].{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=79|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2pp=227, 229, 230–231|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=121}} In June 1911, Stalin was given permission to move to [[Vologda]], where he stayed for two months,{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=47|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=80|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3pp=231, 234|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=121}} having a relationship with Pelageya Onufrieva.{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=79|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=234|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=121}} He escaped to Saint Petersburg,{{sfnm|1a1=Montefiore|1y=2007|1p=236|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2p=121}} where he was arrested in September 1911 and sentenced to a further three-year exile in Vologda.{{sfnm|1a1=Montefiore|1y=2007|1p=237|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2pp=121–22}}

=== 1912–1917: Rise to the Central Committee and editorship of ''Pravda'' ===
[[File:First Issue of PRAVDA.jpg|thumb|right|The first issue of ''[[Pravda]]'', the Bolshevik newspaper of which Stalin was editor]]

In January 1912, while Stalin was in exile, the first [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Bolshevik Central Committee]] was elected at the [[Prague Conference]].{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=83|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2pp=122–123}} Shortly after the conference, Lenin and [[Grigory Zinoviev]] decided to co-opt Stalin to the committee.{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=83|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2pp=122–123}} Still in Vologda, Stalin agreed, remaining a Central Committee member for the rest of his life.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=48|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=83|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=240|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4pp=122–123}} Lenin believed that Stalin, as a Georgian, would help secure support for the Bolsheviks from the empire's minority ethnicities.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=240}} In February 1912, Stalin again escaped to Saint Petersburg,{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=241}} tasked with converting the Bolshevik weekly newspaper, ''Zvezda'' ("Star") into a daily, ''[[Pravda]]'' ("Truth").{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=84|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=243}} The new newspaper was launched in April 1912,{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=84|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=247}} although Stalin's role as editor was kept secret.{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=84|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=247}}

In May 1912, he was arrested again and imprisoned in the Shpalerhy Prison, before being sentenced to three years exile in Siberia.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=51|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=248}} In July, he arrived at the Siberian village of [[Narym]],{{sfnm|1a1=Montefiore|1y=2007|1p=249|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2p=133}} where he shared a room with a fellow Bolshevik [[Yakov Sverdlov]].{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=86|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=250|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=154}} After two months, Stalin and Sverdlov escaped back to Saint Petersburg.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=51|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2pp=86–87|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3pp=250–251}} During a brief period back in Tiflis, Stalin and the Outfit planned the ambush of a mail coach, during which most of the group — although not Stalin — were apprehended by the authorities.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|pp=252–253}} Stalin returned to Saint Petersburg, where he continued editing and writing articles for ''Pravda''.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=255}}

[[File:Stalin in exile 1915.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Stalin in 1915]]

After the [[1912 Russian legislative election|October 1912 Duma elections]], where six Bolsheviks and six Mensheviks were elected, Stalin wrote articles calling for reconciliation between the two Marxist factions, for which Lenin criticised him.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=256}} In late 1912, Stalin twice crossed into [[Austria-Hungary]] to visit Lenin in [[Kraków]],{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=52|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2pp=87–88|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3pp=256–259|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=133}} eventually bowing to Lenin's opposition to reunification with the Mensheviks.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=263}} In January 1913, Stalin travelled to [[Vienna]],{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=54|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=89|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=263}} where he researched the "national question" of how the Bolsheviks should deal with the Russian Empire's national and ethnic minorities.{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=89|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2pp=264–265}} Lenin, who encouraged Stalin to write an article on the subject,{{sfn|Service|2004|p=59}} wanted to attract those groups to the Bolshevik cause by offering them the right of secession from the Russian state, but also hoped they would remain part of a future Bolshevik-governed Russia.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=266}}

Stalin's article ''[[Marxism and the National Question]]''{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=53|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=85|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=266|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=133}} was first published in the March, April, and May 1913 issues of the Bolshevik journal ''[[Prosveshcheniye]]'';{{sfn|Kotkin|2014|p=133}} Lenin was pleased with it.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=267}} According to Montefiore, this was "Stalin's most famous work".{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=266}} The article was published under the pseudonym "K. Stalin",{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=267}} a name he had used since 1912.{{sfnm|1a1=Himmer|1y=1986|1p=269|2a1=Volkogonov|2y=1991|2p=7|3a1=Service|3y=2004|3p=85}} Derived from the Russian word for steel (''stal''),{{sfnm|1a1=Himmer|1y=1986|1p=269|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=85}} this has been translated as "Man of Steel";{{sfnm|1a1=Himmer|1y=1986|1p=269|2a1=Volkogonov|2y=1991|2p=7|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=268|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=133}} Stalin may have intended it to imitate Lenin's pseudonym.{{sfn|Himmer|1986|p=269}} Stalin retained the name for the rest of his life, possibly because it was used on the article that established his reputation among the Bolsheviks.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|pp=267–268}}

In February 1913, Stalin was arrested while back in Saint Petersburg.{{sfnm|1a1=Montefiore|1y=2007|1pp=268–270|2a1=Khlevniuk|2y=2015|2p=28}} He was sentenced to four years exile in [[Turukhansk]], a remote part of Siberia from which escape was particularly difficult.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=54|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2pp=102–103|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3pp=270, 273|4a1=Khlevniuk|4y=2015|4p=29}} In August, he arrived in the village of Monastyrskoe, although after four weeks was relocated to the hamlet of Kostino.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|pp=273–274}} In March 1914, concerned over a potential escape attempt, the authorities moved Stalin to the hamlet of [[Kureika (village)|Kureika]] on the edge of the [[Arctic Circle]].{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=55|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2pp=105–106|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3pp=277–278|4a1=Khlevniuk|4y=2015|4p=29}} In the hamlet, Stalin had a relationship with Lidia Pereprygina, who was fourteen at the time but within the legal [[age of consent]] in Tsarist Russia.{{sfnm|1a1=Suny|1y=2020|1p=559|2a1=Khlevniuk|2y=2015|2p=30}} In or about December 1914, their child was born but the infant soon died.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|pp=292–293}} Their second child, Alexander, was born circa April 1917.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|pp=298, 300}}

In Kureika, Stalin lived among the [[Indigenous peoples of Siberia|indigenous]] [[Tunguses]] and [[Ostyak]] peoples,{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=287}} and spent much of his time fishing.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=56|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=110|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3pp=288–289}}

=== 1917: Russian Revolution ===
While Stalin was in exile, Russia entered the [[First World War]], and in October 1916 Stalin and other exiled Bolsheviks were [[Conscription in the Russian Empire|conscripted into the Russian Army]], leaving for Monastyrskoe.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=57|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2pp=113–114|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=300|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=155}} They arrived in [[Krasnoyarsk]] in February 1917,{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=57|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2pp=301–302|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=155}} where a medical examiner ruled Stalin unfit for military service because of his crippled arm.{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=114|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=302|3a1=Kotkin|3y=2014|3p=155}} Stalin was required to serve four more months of his exile, and he successfully requested that he serve it in nearby [[Achinsk]].{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=114|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=302}} Stalin was in the city when the [[February Revolution]] took place; uprisings broke out in Petrograd — as Saint Petersburg had been renamed — and Tsar Nicholas II abdicated to escape being violently overthrown. The Russian Empire became a ''de facto'' republic, headed by a [[Russian Provisional Government|Provisional Government]] dominated by liberals.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1pp=57–58|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2pp=116–117|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3pp=302–303|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=178|5a1=Khlevniuk|5y=2015|5p=42}} In a celebratory mood, Stalin travelled by train to Petrograd in March.{{sfnm|1a1=Volkogonov|1y=1991|1pp=15, 19|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=117|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=304|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=173}} There, Stalin and a fellow Bolshevik [[Lev Kamenev]] assumed control of ''Pravda'',{{sfnm|1a1=Volkogonov|1y=1991|1p=19|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=120|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=310}} and Stalin was appointed the Bolshevik representative to the executive committee of the [[Petrograd Soviet]], an influential council of the city's workers.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1pp=59–60|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=310}} In April, Stalin came third in the Bolshevik elections for the party's Central Committee; Lenin came first and Zinoviev came second.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=64|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=131|3a1=Montefiore|3y=2007|3p=316|4a1=Kotkin|4y=2014|4p=193|5a1=Khlevniuk|5y=2015|5p=46}} This reflected his senior standing in the party at the time.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=316}}

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=The existing government of landlords and capitalists must be replaced by a new government, a government of workers and peasants.<br />The existing pseudo-government which was not elected by the people and which is not accountable to the people must be replaced by a government recognised by the people, elected by representatives of the workers, soldiers and peasants and held accountable to their representatives.|source= — Stalin's editorial in ''Pravda'', October 1917{{sfn|Service|2004|p=144}}}}

Stalin helped organise the [[July Days]] uprising, an armed display of strength by Bolshevik supporters.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=65|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2pp=319–320}} After the demonstration was suppressed, the Provisional Government initiated a crackdown on the Bolsheviks, raiding ''Pravda''.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=32}} During this raid, Stalin smuggled Lenin out of the newspaper's office and took charge of the Bolshevik leader's safety, moving him between Petrograd safe houses before smuggling him to [[Razliv]].{{sfnm|1a1=Montefiore|1y=2007|1pp=322–324|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2p=203|3a1=Khlevniuk|3y=2015|3pp=48–49}} In Lenin's absence, Stalin continued editing ''Pravda'' and served as acting leader of the Bolsheviks, overseeing the party's [[6th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks)|Sixth Congress]], which was held covertly.{{sfnm|1a1=Montefiore|1y=2007|1p=326|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2p=204}} Lenin began calling for the Bolsheviks to seize power by toppling the Provisional Government in a ''coup d'état''. Stalin and a fellow senior Bolshevik [[Leon Trotsky]] both endorsed Lenin's plan of action, but it was initially opposed by Kamenev and other party members.{{sfnm|1a1=Conquest|1y=1991|1p=68|2a1=Service|2y=2004|2p=138|4a1=Montefiore|4y=2007|4pp=331–332|5a1=Kotkin|5y=2014|5p=214|6a1=Khlevniuk|6y=2015|6p=50}} Lenin returned to Petrograd and secured a majority in favour of a ''coup'' at a meeting of the Central Committee on 10 October.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|pp=332–333, 335}}

On 24 October, police raided the Bolshevik newspaper offices, smashing machinery and presses; Stalin salvaged some of this equipment to continue his activities.{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=144|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2pp=337–338}} In the early hours of 25 October, Stalin joined Lenin in a Central Committee meeting in the [[Smolny Institute]], from where the Bolshevik ''coup'' — the [[October Revolution]] — was directed.{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1p=145|2a1=Montefiore|2y=2007|2p=341}} Bolshevik militia seized Petrograd's electric power station, main post office, state bank, telephone exchange, and several bridges.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|pp=341–342}} A Bolshevik-controlled ship, the ''[[Russian cruiser Aurora|Aurora]]'', opened fire on the [[Winter Palace]]; the Provisional Government's assembled delegates surrendered and were arrested by the Bolsheviks.{{sfn|Montefiore|2007|pp=344–346}} Although he had been tasked with briefing the Bolshevik delegates of the [[All-Russian Congress of Soviets#Second Congress|Second Congress of Soviets]] about the developing situation, Stalin's role in the coup had not been publicly visible.{{sfn|Service|2004|pp=145, 147}} Trotsky and other later Bolshevik opponents of Stalin used this as evidence that his role in the coup had been insignificant, although later historians reject this.{{sfnm|1a1=Service|1y=2004|1pp=144–146|2a1=Kotkin|2y=2014|2p=224|3a1=Khlevniuk|3y=2015|3p=52}} According to the historian [[Oleg Khlevniuk]], Stalin "filled an important role [in the October Revolution]... as a senior Bolshevik, member of the party's Central Committee, and editor of its main newspaper";{{sfn|Khlevniuk|2015|p=53}} the historian [[Stephen Kotkin]] similarly noted that Stalin had been "in the thick of events" in the build-up to the coup.{{sfn|Kotkin|2014|p=177}}