High Middle Ages

==Historical events and politics==
[[File:Bayeux Tapestry WillelmDux.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Bayeux Tapestry]] depicting the [[Battle of Hastings]] during the [[Norman Conquest]]]]

===Great Britain and Ireland===
{{Main|England in the High Middle Ages|Scotland in the High Middle Ages|History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages|Lordship of Ireland}}
In England, the [[Norman Conquest]] of 1066 resulted in a kingdom ruled by a [[French language|Francophone]] nobility. The [[Normans]] invaded Ireland in 1169 and soon established themselves throughout most of the country, although their stronghold was the southeast. Likewise, [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]] were subdued into [[Vassal state|vassal states]] at about the same time, though Scotland later asserted its independence and Wales remained largely under the rule of independent native princes until the death of [[Llywelyn ap Gruffudd|Llywelyn ap Gruffydd]] in 1282.<ref>Davies, Rees (2001-05-01). "Wales: A Culture Preserved". bbc.co.uk/history. p. 3. Retrieved 2008-05-06.</ref> The [[Exchequer]] was founded in the 12th century under [[Henry I of England|King Henry I]], and the first [[Parliament of England|parliaments]] were convened. In 1215, after the loss of [[Normandy]], [[John of England|King John]] signed the [[Magna Carta]] into law, which limited the power of [[List of monarchs of England|English monarchs]].

=== Iberia ===
{{See also|Spain in the Middle Ages|Reconquista}}
[[File:AlfonsoVIII.jpg|thumb|Miniature representing the delivery of the fortress of Uclés to the Master of Order of Santiago in 1174]]
A key geo-strategic development in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] was the Christian conquest of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] in 1085.{{Sfn|Clemente Ramos|2018|p=171}} Dominated by war, the societal structures and relations in the northern Christian kingdoms were subordinated to the demands of omnipresent military conflict.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=García Fitz|first=Francisco|title=Battle in the Medieval Iberian Peninsula: 11th to 13th century Castile-Leon. State of the art|journal=Imago Temporis|year=2016|doi=10.21001/itma.2016.10.01|hdl=10459.1/58852|pages=26–27|doi-access=free|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The territorial expansion of the northern Christian kingdoms to the south brought the creation of border societies, where military demands on knights and foot soldiers and the promotion of [[Settler|settlement]] were privileged to possible [[Seigneurialism|seigneurial]] income;{{Sfn|Clemente Ramos|2018|p=178}} [[Military order (religious society)|military orders]] also played an important role in the borderlands in the [[Meseta Central|southern meseta]].{{Sfn|Clemente Ramos|2018|p=179}} Agricultural models in areas with [[Mediterranean climate]] were generally based on biennial [[crop rotation]].{{Sfn|Clemente Ramos|2018|pp=185–186}} Despite population growth, agricultural output remained relatively rigid throughout the period; between the 10th and 13th centuries, migration southwards to exposed areas was incentivized by the possibility of enjoying privileges and acquiring properties.{{Sfn|Clemente Ramos|2018|pp=187}} Conversely, the [[Intensive farming|intensive agriculture]]-prevalent model in Muslim-ruled lands did not require territorial expansion.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Occidente vs. islam. Modelos agrarios, sociedad/frontera y poder militar en la Reconquista peninsular|first=Julián|location=Jaén|publisher=[[University of Jaén|Universidad de Jaén]]|last=Clemente Ramos|journal=Arqueología y Territorio Medieval|url=https://revistaselectronicas.ujaen.es/index.php/ATM/article/view/3787/3592/14834|issn=1134-3184|issue=25|year=2018|volume=25|pages=169–194|doi=10.17561/aytm.v25.6|s2cid=165549625|doi-access=free}}</ref> While Muslim lands enjoyed from a certain demographic and financial edge{{Clarify|date=July 2022|Reason=This sentence seems to be missing words; WHAT did Muslim lands enjoy from a certain demographic and financial edge?}}, [[Almoravid]]s and [[Almohad]]s from northern Africa featured volatile state structures.{{Sfn|Clemente Ramos|2018|pp=174–175}} Barring (unsuccessful) attempts to take Toledo, Almoravids and Almohads did not stand out for carrying out an expansionist policy.{{Sfn|Clemente Ramos|2018|p=183}}

=== Italy ===
{{Main|Italy in the Middle Ages}}
In Italy, with the Norman conquest, the first great and powerful state was formed, the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] with hereditary monarchy. Subsequently joined to the Holy Roman Empire, it had its moment of maximum splendor with the emperor [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]].

In the rest of Italy, independent city states grew affluent on [[Eastern Mediterranean]] maritime trade. These were in particular the [[thalassocracy|thalassocracies]] of [[Pisa]], [[Amalfi]], [[Genoa]] and [[Venice]], which played a key role in European trade from then on, making these cities become major financial centers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Trade in Medieval Europe|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1301/trade-in-medieval-europe/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=World History Encyclopedia|language=en}}</ref>

===Scandinavia===
{{main|History_of_Denmark#Middle_Ages|History_of_Norway#Middle_Ages|Early Swedish history|l1 = Denmark in the Middle Ages|l2 = Norway in the Middle Ages|North Sea Empire}}

From the mid-10th to the mid-11th centuries, the Scandinavian kingdoms were unified and Christianized, resulting in an end of [[Viking]] raids, and greater involvement in European politics. King [[Canute the Great|Cnut]] of Denmark ruled over both England and Norway. After Cnut's death in 1035, England and Norway were both lost, and with the defeat of [[Valdemar II of Denmark|Valdemar II]] in 1227, Danish predominance in the region came to an end. Meanwhile, Norway extended its Atlantic possessions, ranging from [[Greenland]] to the [[Isle of Man]], while Sweden, under [[Birger Jarl]], built up a power-base in the [[Baltic Sea]]. However, the Norwegian influence started to decline already in the same period, marked by the [[Treaty of Perth]] of 1266. Also, [[Civil war era in Norway|civil wars raged in Norway]] between 1130 and 1240.

===France and Germany===
{{main|France in the Middle Ages}}
{{multiple image| align = right | direction = horizontal | header = France and Germany in the middle ages | header_align = left/right/center | footer = Left: France in the 12th century. Right: The [[Holy Roman Empire]] between 1200 and 1250| footer_align = left | image1 = France 1154 Eng.jpg | width1 = 100 | caption1 = | image2 = Holy Roman Empire at its territorial apex (per consensus).svg| width2 = 180 | caption2  = }}
By the time of the High Middle Ages, the [[Carolingian Empire]] had been divided and replaced by separate successor kingdoms called France and Germany, although not with their modern boundaries. France pushed to the west. The [[Angevin Empire]] controlled much of France in the 12th century and early 13th century until the French retook much of their previous territory. 

===Germany===
{{main|Germany in the Middle Ages}}
By the time of the High Middle Ages, the [[Carolingian Empire]] had been divided and replaced by separate successor kingdoms called France and Germany, although not with their modern boundaries. Germany was significantly more eastern. Germany was under the banner of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], which reached its high-water mark of unity and political power under [[Frederick Barbarossa|Kaiser Frederick Barbarossa]].

===Georgia===
{{Main|Georgian Golden Age}}
During the successful reign of King [[David IV of Georgia]] (1089–1125), the [[Kingdom of Georgia]] grew in strength and expelled the [[Seljuk Empire]] from its lands. David's decisive victory in the [[Battle of Didgori]] (1121) against the Seljuk Turks, as a result of which Georgia recaptured its lost capital [[Tbilisi]], marked the beginning of the [[Georgian Golden Age]]. David's granddaughter [[Tamar of Georgia|Queen Tamar]] continued the upward rise, successfully neutralizing internal opposition and embarking on an energetic foreign policy aided by further decline of the hostile [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk Turks]]. Relying on a powerful military élite, Tamar was able to build on the successes of her predecessors to consolidate an empire which dominated vast lands spanning from present-day southern [[Russian Federation|Russia]] on the [[Black Sea]] to the [[Caspian Sea]]. Georgia remained a leading regional power until its collapse under the [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] attacks within two decades after Tamar's death.

===Hungary===
{{main|Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:SztIstvan 5.jpg|thumb|upright|King Saint [[Stephen I of Hungary]].]]
In the High Middle Ages, the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] (founded in 1000), became one of the most powerful medieval states in central Europe and Western Europe. King Saint [[Stephen I of Hungary]] introduced Christianity to the region; he was remembered by the contemporary chroniclers as a very religious monarch, with wide knowledge in Latin grammar, strict with his own people but kind to foreigners. He eradicated the remnants of the tribal organisation in the Kingdom and forced the people to sedentarize and adopt the [[Christianity|Christian]] religion.  He founded the Hungarian medieval state, organising it politically into counties using the Germanic system as a model.

The following monarchs usually kept a close relationship with Rome, such as Saint [[Ladislaus I of Hungary]], and a tolerant attitude with the [[paganism|pagans]] that escaped to the Kingdom searching for sanctuary (for example [[Cumans]] in the 13th century), which eventually created certain discomfort for some [[Pope]]s. By entering into [[Personal union]] with the [[Kingdom of Croatia (medieval)#Controversies|Kingdom of Croatia]] and the establishment of other [[vassal state]]s, Hungary became a small empire that extended its control over the [[Southeast Europe]] and the [[Carpathian]] region. During medieval times, the [[Hungarians|Hungarian]] royal house contributed the most saints to the Catholic Church .

===Lithuania===
{{main|Grand Duchy of Lithuania}}
During the High Middle Ages Lithuania emerged as a [[Duchy of Lithuania]] in the early 13th century, then briefly becoming the [[Kingdom of Lithuania]] from 1251 to 1263. After the assassination of its first Christian king [[Mindaugas]] Lithuania was known as [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. Unconquered during the [[Lithuanian Crusade]], Lithuania itself rapidly expanded to the East due to conquests and became one of the largest states in Europe.

===Poland===
[[File:Polska 960 - 992.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Poland]] under the rule of Duke [[Mieszko I]] between {{Circa|960}} - 992]]
{{main|History of Poland in the Middle Ages|History of Poland during the Piast dynasty}}

In the mid-10th century Poland emerged as a duchy after [[Mieszko I]], the ruler of the [[Western Polans|Polans]], conquered the surrounding [[Lechites|Lechitic tribes]] in the region. Then in 1025 under the rule of [[Bolesław I the Brave]], Poland became a kingdom.

===Southeast Europe===
[[File:Khazarfall1.png|thumb|upright=1.3|The [[Pontic steppe]]s, {{circa|lk=no|1015}}]]
{{Main|Komnenian restoration|Second Bulgarian Empire|Serbian Grand Principality|Principality of Arbanon|Banate of Bosnia|Croatia in the union with Hungary}}

The High Middle Ages saw the height and decline of the Slavic state of [[Kievan Rus']] and emergence of [[Cumania]]. Later, the [[Mongol invasions|Mongol invasion]] in the 13th century had great impact on the east of [[Europe]], as many countries of the region were invaded, pillaged, conquered and/or vassalized.

During the first half of this period ({{circa|lk=no|1025}}{{mdash}}1185) the [[Byzantine Empire]] dominated the [[Southeast Europe]], and under the [[Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|Komnenian]] emperors there was a revival of prosperity and urbanization; however, their domination of [[Southeast Europe]] came to an end with a successful [[Uprising of Asen and Peter|Vlach-Bulgarian rebellion in 1185]], and henceforth the region was divided between the Byzantines in Greece, some parts of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], and [[Thrace]], the Bulgarians in [[Moesia]] and most of Thrace and Macedonia, and the [[Serbian Grand Principality|Serbs]] to the northwest. Eastern and Western churches had formally split in the 11th century, and despite occasional periods of co-operation during the 12th century, in 1204 the [[Fourth Crusade]] treacherously captured [[Constantinople]]. This severely damaged the Byzantines, and their power was ultimately weakened by the [[Seljuq Empire|Seljuks]] and the rising [[Ottoman Empire]] in the 14–15th century. The power of the [[Latin Empire]], however, was short-lived after the Crusader army was routed by [[list of Bulgarian monarchs|Bulgarian Emperor]] [[Kaloyan of Bulgaria|Kaloyan]] in the [[Battle of Adrianople (1205)]].

===Climate and agriculture===
{{Main|Medieval Warm Period}}<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Highmiddleagesplow.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|A farmer using [[ox]]en to plow a field]] -->

The [[Medieval Warm Period]], the period from the 10th century to about the 14th century in Europe, was a relatively warm and gentle interval ended by the generally colder [[Little Ice Age]] which would continue until the Middle of the 19th century. Farmers grew [[wheat]] well north into Scandinavia, and [[wine]] grapes in northern England, although the maximum expansion of vineyards appears to occur within the Little Ice Age period. During this time, a high demand for wine and steady volume of [[Alcoholic drink|alcohol consumption]] inspired a viticulture revolution of progress.<ref>Jellinek, E. M. 1976. "Drinkers and Alcoholics in Ancient Rome." Edited by Carole D. Yawney andRobert E. Popham. ''Journal of Studies on Alcohol'' 37 (11): 1718–1740.</ref> This protection from [[famine]] allowed Europe's population to increase, despite the famine in 1315 that killed 1.5 million people. This increased population contributed to the founding of new towns and an increase in industrial and economic activity during the period. They also established trade and a comprehensive production of alcohol. Food production also increased during this time as new ways of farming were introduced, including the use of a heavier plow, horses instead of oxen, and a three-field system that allowed the cultivation of a greater variety of crops than the earlier two-field system—notably [[legume]]s, the growth of which prevented the depletion of important nitrogen from the soil.

===The rise of chivalry===
{{Main|Chivalry}}

During the High Middle Ages, the idea of a Christian warrior started to change as Christianity grew more prominent in Medieval Europe. The [[Chivalry|Codes of Chivalry]] promoted the ideal knight to be selfless, faithful, and fierce against those who threaten the weak.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Saul|first=Nigel|title=Chivalry in Medieval England|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780674063693|pages=197}}</ref> Household heavy cavalry ([[knight]]s) became common in the 11th century across Europe, and [[Tournament (medieval)|tournaments]] were invented. Tournaments allowed knights to establish their family name while being able to gather vast wealth and renown through victories. In the 12th century, the [[Cluny]] monks promoted ethical warfare and inspired the formation of [[order of chivalry|orders of chivalry]], such as the [[Knights Templar|Templar Knights]]. Inherited titles of nobility were established during this period. In 13th-century Germany, knighthood became another [[inheritance|inheritable]] title, although one of the less prestigious, and the trend spread to other countries.