Feminism

== History ==
{{main|History of feminism}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of feminism}}

=== Terminology ===
{{see also|Protofeminism}}
[[Mary Wollstonecraft]] is seen by many as a founder of feminism due to her 1792 book titled ''[[A Vindication of the Rights of Woman]]'' in which she argues that class and private property are the basis of discrimination against women, and that women as much as men needed equal rights.<ref>M Wollstoncraft, ''[[A Vindication of the Rights of Woman]]'' (1792) [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Vindication_of_the_Rights_of_Woman/Chapter_IX ch VII], "From the respect paid to property flow, as from a poisoned fountain, most of the evils and vices which render this world such a dreary scene to the contemplative mind." {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ue0dAAAAQBAJ|isbn = 9781136753039|title = Mary Wollstonecraft, Pedagogy, and the Practice of Feminism|date = 18 July 2013|publisher = Routledge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGSV8ihuJfcC|isbn = 9780061866005|title = Vindication: A Life of Mary Wollstonecraft|date = 17 March 2009|publisher = Harper Collins}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/womens-blog/2015/oct/05/original-suffragette-mary-wollstonecraft|title=The original suffragette: The extraordinary Mary Wollstonecraft|website=[[TheGuardian.com]]|date=5 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://institute-genderequality.org/news-publications/feminism/feminism-18th-century-and-beyond/|title = Feminism in the 18th century and beyond}}</ref> [[Charles Fourier]], a [[Utopian socialism|utopian socialist]] and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word "féminisme" in 1837.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Goldstein|first=Leslie F.|year=1982|title=Early Feminist Themes in French Utopian Socialism: The St.-Simonians and Fourier|journal=[[Journal of the History of Ideas]]|volume=43|issue=1|pages=91–108|doi=10.2307/2709162|jstor=2709162}}</ref> The words "féminisme" ("feminism") and "féministe" ("feminist") first appeared in [[Feminism in France|France]] and the [[Feminism in the Netherlands|Netherlands]] in 1872,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Grever|first=Maria|title=Strijd tegen de stilte. Johanna Naber (1859–1941) en de vrouwenstem in geschiedenis|publisher=Hilversum Verloren|year=1994|isbn=90-6550-395-1|pages=31|language=Dutch|chapter=Dutch feminist pioneer [[Mina Kruseman]] in a letter to Alexandre Dumas}}</ref> [[Feminism in the United Kingdom|Great Britain]] in the 1890s, and the [[Feminism in the United States|United States]] in 1910.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Offen|first=Karen|title=Sur l'origine des mots 'féminisme' et 'féministe'|journal=[[Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine]] |year=1987|volume=34|issue=3|pages=492–96|jstor=20529317|doi=10.3406/rhmc.1987.1421}}</ref><ref name="cott">{{cite book|author-link=Nancy F. Cott|last=Cott|first=Nancy F.|title=The Grounding of Modern Feminism|location=New Haven|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1987|page=[https://archive.org/details/groundingofmoder00cott/page/13 13]|isbn=978-0-300-04228-3|url=https://archive.org/details/groundingofmoder00cott/page/13}}</ref> The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' dates the first appearance in English in this meaning back to 1895.<ref name=oed>{{cite encyclopedia |dictionary=[[Oxford English Dictionary]] |title=feminism |url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/69192 |edition=3rd |year=2012 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |url-access=subscription|quote=Advocacy of equality of the sexes and the establishment of the political, social, and economic rights of the female sex; the movement associated with this.}}</ref> Depending on the historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist historians contend that all movements working to obtain women's rights should be considered feminist movements, even when they did not (or do not) apply the term to themselves.<ref name="spender">{{cite book |last=Spender |first=Dale |title=There's Always Been a Women's Movement this Century |url=https://archive.org/details/theresalwaysbeen00spenrich |url-access=registration |publisher=Pandora Press |location=London |year=1983 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/theresalwaysbeen00spenrich/page/n98 1]–200|isbn=9780863580024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lerner |first=Gerda |title=The Creation of Feminist Consciousness From the Middle Ages to Eighteen-seventy |url=https://archive.org/details/creationoffemini00gerd |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/creationoffemini00gerd/page/n12 1]–20}}</ref><ref name="walters">{{cite book|last=Walters |first=Margaret |title=Feminism: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-280510-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/feminismveryshor00walt/page/1 1–176] |url=https://archive.org/details/feminismveryshor00walt/page/1 }}</ref><ref name="kinnaird">{{cite book |last1=Kinnaird |first1=Joan |first2=Mary |last2=Astell |chapter=Inspired by ideas (1668–1731) |editor1-last=Spender |editor1-first=Dale |title=There's Always Been a Women's Movement |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/theresalwaysbeen00spenrich |chapter-url-access=registration |publisher=Pandora Press |location=London |year=1983 |pages=29–|isbn=9780863580024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-femhist/index.html |last=Witt |first=Charlotte |title=Feminist History of Philosophy |website=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |year=2006 |access-date=23 January 2012}}</ref><ref name="taylor">{{cite journal |first1=Ann Taylor |last1=Allen |year=1999 |title=Feminism, Social Science, and the Meanings of Modernity: The Debate on the Origin of the Family in Europe and the United States, 1860–1914 |journal=[[The American Historical Review]] |volume=104 |issue=4 |pages=1085–113 |jstor=2649562 |pmid=19291893 |doi=10.1086/ahr/104.4.1085}}</ref> Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and its descendants. Those historians use the label "[[protofeminist]]" to describe earlier movements.<ref name="botting-houser">{{cite journal |first1=Eileen Hunt |last1=Botting |first2=Sarah L. |last2=Houser |year=2006 |title='Drawing the Line of Equality': Hannah Mather Crocker on Women's Rights |journal=[[American Political Science Review]] |volume=100 |issue=2 |pages=265–78 |jstor=27644349 |doi=10.1017/S0003055406062150|s2cid=144730126 }}</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Feminist Suffrage Parade in New York City, 1912.jpeg|Feminist suffrage parade, New York City, 1912
File:Articles_by_and_photo_of_Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman_in_1916.jpg|[[Charlotte Perkins Gilman]] wrote about feminism for the ''Atlanta Constitution'', 10 December 1916.
File:Emmeline Pankhurst addresses crowd.jpg|After selling her home, [[Emmeline Pankhurst]], pictured in New York City in 1913, travelled constantly, giving speeches throughout Britain and the United States.
File:Wilhelmina Drucker IMG0020.tif|In the Netherlands, [[Wilhelmina Drucker]] (1847–1925) fought successfully for the vote and equal rights for women, through organizations she founded.
File:Louise Weiss.jpg|[[Louise Weiss]] along with other Parisian [[suffragette]]s in 1935. The newspaper headline reads "The Frenchwoman Must Vote".
</gallery>

=== Waves ===
The history of the modern western feminist movement is divided into multiple "waves".<ref name="Humm">{{Cite book|last=Humm|first=Maggie|title=The Dictionary of Feminist Theory|publisher=Columbus: Ohio State University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0133553895|pages=251}}</ref><ref name="Walker1992">{{cite magazine |last=Walker |first=Rebecca |title=Becoming the Third Wave |magazine=[[Ms. (magazine)|Ms.]] |date=January–February 1992 |pages=39–41}}</ref><ref name=Chamberlain2017>{{cite book|last=Chamberlain|first=Prudence|title=The Feminist Fourth Wave: Affective Temporality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8AIkDwAAQBAJ|year=2017|publisher=Springer|location=Cham|isbn=978-3-319-53682-8}}</ref>

The [[First-wave feminism|first]] comprised women's suffrage movements of the 19th and early-20th centuries, promoting women's right to vote. The [[Second-wave feminism|second wave]], the [[women's liberation movement]], began in the 1960s and campaigned for legal and social equality for women. In or around 1992, a [[Third-wave feminism|third wave]] was identified, characterized by a focus on individuality and diversity.<ref name="Suffragettes to Grrls">{{cite book |last1=Krolokke |first1=Charlotte |first2=Anne Scott |last2=Sorensen |title=Gender Communication Theories and Analyses: From Silence to Performance |year=2005 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-0-7619-2918-5 |page=24 |chapter=Three Waves of Feminism: From Suffragettes to Grrls}}</ref> Additionally, some have argued for the existence of a [[Fourth-wave feminism|fourth wave]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=feminism - The fourth wave of feminism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/feminism/The-fourth-wave-of-feminism|access-date=29 November 2021|website=Britannica }}</ref> starting around 2012, which has used [[social media]] to combat [[sexual harassment]], [[violence against women]] and [[rape culture]]; it is best known for the [[Me Too movement]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Feminism: The Fourth Wave|url=https://www.britannica.com/explore/100women/issues/feminism-the-fourth-wave/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804075911/https://www.britannica.com/explore/100women/issues/feminism-the-fourth-wave/|archive-date=4 August 2019|access-date=21 May 2019|website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]}}</ref>

=== 19th and early 20th centuries ===
{{Main|First-wave feminism}}
First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th and early-20th centuries. In the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. New legislation included the [[Custody of Infants Act 1839]] in the UK, which introduced the [[tender years doctrine]] for child custody and gave women the right of custody of their children for the first time.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wroath|first=John|title=Until They Are Seven, The Origins of Women's Legal Rights|year=1998|publisher=Waterside Press|isbn=1-872870-57-0|url=https://archive.org/details/untiltheyareseve00wroa}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Mitchell|first=L. G.|title=Lord Melbourne, 1779–1848|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Perkins|first=Jane Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FJBpAAAAMAAJ|title=The Life of the Honourable Mrs. Norton|year=1909|publisher=John Murray}}</ref> Other legislation, such as the [[Married Women's Property Act 1870]] in the UK and extended in the [[Married Women's Property Act 1882|1882 Act]],<ref name=MWPA1882>{{cite web |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Vict/45-46/75/introduction |title=Married Women's Property Act 1882 |year=1882 |publisher=UK Government |website=legislation.gov.uk |access-date=17 April 2017}}</ref> became models for similar legislation in other British territories. [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] passed legislation in 1884 and [[New South Wales]] in 1889; the remaining Australian colonies passed similar legislation between 1890 and 1897. With the turn of the 19th century, activism focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right of women's [[suffrage]], though some feminists were active in campaigning for women's [[Sexual and reproductive health and rights|sexual]], [[reproductive rights|reproductive]], and [[Economic, social and cultural rights|economic rights]] too.<ref name=NoTurningBack464>{{cite book|author=Freedman, Estelle B. |title=No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women |year=2003 |publisher=Ballantine Books |isbn=978-0-345-45053-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/noturningbackhis00free/page/464 464] |url=https://archive.org/details/noturningbackhis00free/page/464 }}</ref>

[[Women's suffrage]] (the right to vote and stand for parliamentary office) began in Britain's [[Australasia]]n colonies at the end of the 19th century, with the self-governing colony of [[Feminism in New Zealand|New Zealand]] granting women the right to vote in 1893; [[South Australia]] followed suit with the [[Constitutional Amendment (Adult Suffrage) Act 1894]] in 1894. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elections.org.nz/votes-women |title=Votes for Women Electoral Commission |publisher=Elections New Zealand |date=13 April 2005 |access-date=31 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914135838/http://www.elections.org.nz/votes-women |archive-date=14 September 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aec.gov.au/Elections/Australian_Electoral_History/wright.htm|title=Women and the right to vote in Australia|publisher=Australian Electoral Commission |date=28 January 2011 |access-date=26 April 2013}}</ref>

In Britain, the suffragettes and [[National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies|suffragists]] campaigned for the women's vote, and in 1918 the [[Representation of the People Act 1918|Representation of the People Act]] was passed granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned property. In 1928, this was extended to all women over 21.<ref name=Phillips>{{cite book |author=Phillips, Melanie |title=The Ascent of Woman: A History of the Suffragette Movement and the Ideas Behind it |year=2004 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-11660-0 |pages=1–370}}</ref> [[Emmeline Pankhurst]] was the most notable activist in England. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' named her one of the [[Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century|100 Most Important People of the 20th Century]], stating: "she shaped an idea of women for our time; she shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back."<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Emmeline Pankhurst&nbsp;– Time 100 People of the Century |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,991250,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306060513/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,991250,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 March 2008 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |first=Marina |last=Warner |date=14 June 1999}}</ref> In the US, notable leaders of this movement included [[Lucretia Mott]], [[Elizabeth Cady Stanton]], and [[Susan B. Anthony]], who each campaigned for the [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolition of slavery]] before championing women's right to vote. These women were influenced by the [[Quaker]] theology of spiritual equality, which asserts that men and women are equal under God.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ruether|first=Rosemary Radford|title=Women and Redemption: A Theological History|publisher=Fortress Press|location=Minneapolis|isbn=978-0-8006-9816-4|pages=112–18, 136–39|edition=2nd|year=2012}}</ref> In the US, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] (1919), granting women the right to vote in all states. The term ''first wave'' was coined retroactively when the term ''second-wave feminism'' came into use.<ref name=NoTurningBack464/><ref name= DuBois>{{cite book |author=DuBois, Ellen Carol |title=Harriot Stanton Blatch and the Winning of Woman Suffrage |year=1997 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Conn. |isbn=978-0-300-06562-6}}</ref><ref name=Flexner>{{cite book |last=Flexner |first=Eleanor |title=Century of Struggle: The Woman's Rights Movement in the United States |publisher=The Belknap Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-674-10653-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/century_fle_1996_00_7206/page/ xxviii–xxx] |url=https://archive.org/details/century_fle_1996_00_7206/page/ }}</ref><ref name= Wheeler>{{cite book|last=Wheeler |first=Marjorie W. |title=One Woman, One Vote: Rediscovering the Woman Suffrage Movement |year=1995 |publisher=NewSage Press |location=Troutdale, OR |isbn=978-0-939165-26-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/onewomanonevoter00spru/page/127 127] |url=https://archive.org/details/onewomanonevoter00spru/page/127 }}</ref><ref name=Stevens>{{cite book|last1=Stevens |first1=Doris |last2=O'Hare |first2=Carol |title=Jailed for Freedom: American Women Win the Vote |year=1995 |publisher=NewSage Press |location=Troutdale, OR |isbn=978-0-939165-25-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jailedforfreedom00stev/page/1 1–388] |url=https://archive.org/details/jailedforfreedom00stev/page/1 }}</ref>

During the late [[Qing Dynasty|Qing period]] and reform movements such as the [[Hundred Days' Reform]], [[Feminism in China|Chinese feminists]] called for women's liberation from traditional roles and [[Neo-Confucian]] [[Gender inequality in China|gender segregation]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ko |first1=Dorothy |first2=JaHyun Kim |last2=Haboush |first3=Joan R. |last3=Piggott |title=Women and Confucian Cultures in Premodern China, Korea, and Japan |publisher=University of California Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-520-23138-2}}{{page needed|date=October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ma |first1=Yuxin |title=Women Journalists and Feminism in China, 1898–1937 |publisher=Cambria Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-60497-660-1}}{{page needed|date=October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Farris |first1=Catherine S. |first2=Anru |last2=Lee |first3=Murray A. |last3=Rubinstein |title=Women in the New Taiwan: Gender Roles and Gender Consciousness in a Changing Society |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7656-0814-7}}{{page needed|date=October 2012}}</ref> Later, the [[Chinese Communist Party]] created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved women's liberation.<ref name="Dooling">{{cite book |last=Dooling |first=Amy D. |title=Women's Literary Feminism in 20th-Century China |publisher=Macmillan |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4039-6733-6}}{{page needed|date=October 2012}}</ref>

According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with [[Arab nationalism]]. In 1899, [[Qasim Amin]], considered the "father" of Arab feminism, wrote ''The Liberation of Women'', which argued for legal and social reforms for women.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stange |first1=Mary Zeiss |first2=Carol K. |last2=Oyster |first3=Jane E. |last3=Sloan |title=Encyclopedia of Women in Today's World |publisher=SAGE |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4129-7685-5 |pages=79–81}}</ref> He drew links between women's position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University and the National Movement.<ref name=Golley>{{cite book |last=Golley |first=Nawar Al-Hassan |title=Reading Arab Women's Autobiographies: Shahrazad Tells Her Story |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=2003 |pages=30–50 |isbn=978-0-292-70545-6}}</ref> In 1923 [[Hoda Shaarawi]] founded the [[Egyptian Feminist Union]], became its president and a symbol of the Arab women's rights movement.<ref name=Golley/>

The [[Iranian Constitutional Revolution]] in 1905 triggered the [[Iranian women's movement]], which aimed to achieve women's equality in [[Iranian gender restrictions in education|education]], marriage, careers, and [[Women's rights in Iran|legal rights]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ettehadieh |first=Mansoureh |author-link=Mansoureh Ettehadieh |year=2004 |chapter=The Origins and Development of the Women's Movement in Iran, 1906–41 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tLRgXf_e_CEC&pg=PA85 |pages=85–106 |title=Women in Iran from 1800 to the Islamic Republic |editor1-first=Lois |editor1-last=Beck |editor2-first=Guity |editor2-last=Nashat |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=978-0-252-07189-8}}</ref> However, during the [[Iranian revolution]] of 1979, many of the rights that [[Women in Iran|women]] had gained from the women's movement were systematically abolished, such as the [[Iran's Family Protection Law|Family Protection Law]].<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Chronology of Events Regarding Women in Iran since the Revolution of 1979 |title=Iran Since the Revolution |first=Elham |last=Gheytanchi |series=Social Research, Volume 67, No. 2 |year=2000 |editor1-first=Arien |editor1-last=Mack |chapter-url=http://www.iranchamber.com/society/articles/chronology_events_women_iran.php}}</ref>

=== Mid-20th century ===

By the mid-20th century, women still lacked significant rights.

In [[Women in France|France]], women obtained the [[Women's suffrage#France|right to vote]] only with the [[Provisional Government of the French Republic]] of 21 April 1944. [[Provisional Consultative Assembly|The Consultative Assembly of Algiers of 1944]] proposed on 24 March 1944 to grant eligibility to women but following an amendment by [[Fernand Grenier (French politician)|Fernard Grenier]], they were given full citizenship, including the right to vote. Grenier's proposition was adopted 51 to 16. In May 1947, following the [[November 1946 French legislative election|November 1946 elections]], the sociologist Robert Verdier minimized the "[[gender differences|gender gap]]", stating in ''[[Le Populaire (French newspaper)|Le Populaire]]'' that women had not voted in a consistent way, dividing themselves, as men, according to social classes. During the [[Post-World War II baby boom|baby boom]] period, feminism waned in importance. Wars (both World War I and World War II) had seen the provisional emancipation of some women, but post-war periods signalled the return to conservative roles.<ref name=Bard>{{cite journal |first=Christine |last=Bard |url=http://www.histoire-politique.fr/index.php?numero=01&rub=dossier&item=7 |title=Les premières femmes au Gouvernement (France, 1936–1981) |trans-title=First Women in Government (France, 1936–1981) |journal=[[Histoire@Politique]] |issue=1 |date=May–June 2007 |volume=1 |page=2 |doi=10.3917/hp.001.0002 |language=fr}}</ref>

In [[Women in Switzerland|Switzerland]], women gained the [[Women's suffrage in Switzerland|right to vote]] in federal [[Elections in Switzerland|elections]] in 1971;<ref>{{cite news |last1=Zivkovic |first1=Olivera |title=Switzerland marks 50 years of women voting |url=https://www.dw.com/en/switzerland-marks-50-years-of-women-voting/a-56469446 |access-date=16 November 2022 |work=dw.com |date=7 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref> but in the canton of [[Appenzell Innerrhoden]] women obtained the right to vote on local issues only in 1991, when the canton was forced to do so by the [[Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland]].<ref>{{cite web|date=14 January 2003|title=United Nations press release of a meeting of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)|url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/WOM1373.doc.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127151927/https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/WOM1373.doc.htm|archive-date=27 January 2012|access-date=2 September 2011|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> In [[Women's suffrage in Liechtenstein|Liechtenstein]], women were given the right to vote by the [[1984 Liechtenstein women's suffrage referendum|women's suffrage referendum of 1984]]. Three prior referendums held in [[1968 Liechtenstein referendums#Women's suffrage|1968]], [[1971 Liechtenstein women's suffrage referendum|1971]] and [[1973 Liechtenstein referendums#Women's suffrage|1973]] had failed to secure women's right to vote.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bro |first1=Alexandra |title=Commemorating the Nineteenth Amendment: Women's Suffrage at Home and Abroad |url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/commemorating-nineteenth-amendment-womens-suffrage-home-and-abroad |publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |access-date=16 November 2022 |language=en |date=27 August 2020}}</ref>
[[File:Photograph of American Women Replacing Men Fighting in Europe - NARA - 535769.tif|thumb|Photograph of American women replacing men fighting in Europe, 1945]]

Feminists continued to campaign for the reform of [[family law]]s which gave husbands control over their wives. Although by the 20th century [[coverture]] had been abolished in the UK and US, in many [[continental European]] countries married women still had very few rights. For instance, in France, married women did not receive the right to work without their husband's permission until 1965.<ref name=Guillaumin>{{cite book |last=Guillaumin|first=Colette|year=1994 |title=Racism, Sexism, Power, and Ideology |pages=193–95}}</ref><ref name=Meltzer>{{cite book |last=Meltzer |first=Françoise |year=1995 |title=Hot Property: The Stakes and Claims of Literary Originality |page=88}}</ref> Feminists have also worked to abolish the [[marital rape|"marital exemption" in rape laws]] which precluded the prosecution of husbands for the rape of their wives.<ref name=Allison>{{cite book |last=Allison |first=Julie A. |year=1995 |title=Rape: The Misunderstood Crime |page=89}}</ref> Earlier efforts by first-wave feminists such as [[Voltairine de Cleyre]], [[Victoria Woodhull]] and [[Elizabeth Clarke Wolstenholme Elmy]] to criminalize marital rape in the late 19th century had failed;<ref name=Bland>{{cite book |last=Bland |first=Lucy |year=2002 |title=Banishing the Beast: Feminism, Sex and Morality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cl8nLdfgz1IC |access-date=25 August 2013 |pages=135–49|publisher=I. B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-681-2 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | issn = 1040-0656 | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | pages = 54–68 [60] | last = Palczewski | first = Catherine Helen | title = Voltairine de Cleyre: Sexual Slavery and Sexual Pleasure in the Nineteenth Century | journal = [[NWSA Journal]] | date = 1 October 1995 | jstor = 4316402 }}</ref> this was only achieved a century later in most Western countries, but is still not achieved in many other parts of the world.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Crowell |first1=Nancy A. |last2=Burgess |first2=Ann W. |year=1997 |title=Understanding Violence Against Women |page=127}}</ref>

French philosopher [[Simone de Beauvoir]] provided a [[Marxist]] solution and an [[existentialist]] view on many of the questions of feminism with the publication of ''Le Deuxième Sexe'' (''[[The Second Sex]]'') in 1949.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bergoffen |first=Debra |title=Simone de Beauvoir |date=16 August 2010 |orig-date=17 August 2004 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/beauvoir/ |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref> The book expressed feminists' sense of injustice. Second-wave feminism is a feminist movement beginning in the early 1960s<ref name=Whelehan>{{cite book |last=Whelehan |first=Imelda |title=Modern Feminist Thought: From the Second Wave to 'Post-Feminism' |url=https://archive.org/details/modernfeministth0000whel |url-access=registration |year=1995 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-0-7486-0621-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/modernfeministth0000whel/page/25 25–43]}}</ref> and continuing to the present; as such, it coexists with third-wave feminism. Second-wave feminism is largely concerned with issues of equality beyond suffrage, such as ending [[Sexism|gender discrimination]].<ref name=NoTurningBack464/>	
{{multiple image
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| image1    = The Feminine Mystique.jpg
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| image2    = Germaine Greer - The Female Eunuch.jpg
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| alt2      = 
| footer = ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]'' (1963) by [[Betty Friedan]] and ''[[The Female Eunuch]]'' (1970) by [[Germaine Greer]] are considered landmark texts in second-wave feminism.
}}
Second-wave feminists see women's cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and encourage women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized and as reflecting sexist power structures. The feminist activist and author [[Carol Hanisch]] coined the slogan "The Personal is Political", which became synonymous with the second wave.<ref name=Echols/><ref name=Hanisch>{{cite web |url=http://scholar.alexanderstreet.com/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=2259 |title=Hanisch, New Intro to 'The Personal is Political' – Second Wave and Beyond |access-date=8 June 2008 |last=Hanisch |first=Carol |date=1 January 2006 |website=The Personal Is Political |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515014413/http://scholar.alexanderstreet.com/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=2259 |archive-date=15 May 2008}}</ref>

Second- and third-wave feminism in China has been characterized by a reexamination of women's roles during the communist revolution and other reform movements, and new discussions about whether women's equality has actually been fully achieved.<ref name="Dooling" />

In 1956, President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] of [[Feminism in Egypt|Egypt]] initiated "[[state feminism]]", which outlawed [[Human rights in Egypt#Status of women|discrimination based on gender]] and granted women's suffrage, but also blocked political activism by feminist leaders.<ref>{{cite book |last=Badran |first=Margot |title=Feminists, Islam, and Nation: Gender and the Making of Modern Egypt |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-691-02605-3}}{{page needed|date=October 2012}}</ref> During [[Anwar Sadat|Sadat]]'s presidency, his wife, [[Jehan Sadat]], publicly advocated further women's rights, though Egyptian policy and society began to move away from women's equality with the new [[Islamist]] movement and growing conservatism.<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Bonnie G. |title=Global Feminisms Since 1945 |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-415-18491-5}}</ref> However, some activists proposed a new feminist movement, [[Islamic feminism]], which argues for women's equality within an Islamic framework.<ref>{{cite web|title=Islamic feminism means justice to women|url=http://www.milligazette.com/Archives/2004/16-31Jan04-Print-Edition/1631200425.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821055118/https://www.milligazette.com/Archives/2004/16-31Jan04-Print-Edition/1631200425.htm|archive-date=21 August 2013|access-date=31 March 2013|website=The Mili Gazette}}</ref>

In [[Feminism in Latin America|Latin America]], revolutions brought changes in women's status in countries such as [[Role of women in Nicaraguan Revolution|Nicaragua]], where [[feminist ideology during the Sandinista Revolution]] aided women's quality of life but fell short of achieving a social and ideological change.<ref name="parpart">{{Cite book |last1=Parpart |first1=Jane L. |last2=Connelly |first2=M. Patricia |last3=Connelly |first3=Patricia |last4=Barriteau |first4=V. Eudine |last5=Barriteau |first5=Eudine |title=Theoretical Perspectives on Gender and Development |location=Ottawa, Canada |publisher=International Development Research Centre |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-88936-910-8 |page=215}}</ref>

In 1963, [[Betty Friedan]]'s book ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]'' helped voice the discontent that American women felt. The book is widely credited with sparking the beginning of second-wave feminism in the United States.<ref name="nytimes2006">{{cite news|author-link=Margalit Fox |last=Fox |first=Margalit |date=5 February 2006|title=Betty Friedan, Who Ignited Cause in 'Feminine Mystique,' Dies at 85|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/05/us/betty-friedan-who-ignited-cause-in-feminine-mystique-dies-at-85.html|url-status=live|access-date=19 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124045206/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/05/us/betty-friedan-who-ignited-cause-in-feminine-mystique-dies-at-85.html|archive-date=24 November 2021}}</ref> Within ten years, women made up over half the First World workforce.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunt |first=Michael |year=2016 |title=The World Transformed: 1945 to the Present |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-937102-0 |pages=220–223}}</ref> In 1970, Australian writer [[Germaine Greer]] published ''[[The Female Eunuch]]'', which became a worldwide bestseller, reportedly driving up divorce rates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/jan/26/germaine-greer-female-eunuch-feminists-influence|title=What Germaine Greer and The Female Eunuch mean to me|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=January 26, 2014|accessdate=January 16, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-the-female-eunuch-at-50-germaine-greers-fearless-feminist-masterpiece-147437|title=Friday essay: The Female Eunuch at 50, Germaine Greer's fearless, feminist masterpiece|work=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]|date=October 9, 2020|accessdate=January 16, 2023}}</ref> Greer posits that [[Misogyny|men hate women]], that women do not know this and direct the hatred upon themselves, as well as arguing that women are devitalised and repressed in their role as housewives and mothers.

=== Late 20th and early 21st centuries ===

==== Third-wave feminism ====
{{main|Third-wave feminism}}
[[File:Lozu mont oct8 bellhooooooooks.png|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Feminist, author and social activist [[bell hooks]] (1952–2021)]]
Third-wave feminism is traced to the emergence of the [[riot grrrl]] feminist [[punk subculture]] in [[Olympia, Washington]], in the early 1990s,<ref name="Piepmeier2009p45">{{cite book|last=Piepmeier|first=Alison|title=Girl Zines: Making Media, Doing Feminism|publisher=New York University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780814767733|location=New York|page=45}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Feliciano|first1=Steve|date=19 June 2013|title=The Riot Grrrl Movement|url=http://www.nypl.org/blog/2013/06/19/riot-grrrl-movement|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130918002826/https://www.nypl.org/blog/2013/06/19/riot-grrrl-movement|archive-date=18 September 2013|publisher=New York Public Library|quote=The emergence of the Riot Grrrl movement began in the early 1990s, when a group of women in Olympia, Washington, held a meeting to discuss how to address sexism in the punk scene. The women decided they wanted to start a 'girl riot' against a society they felt offered no validation of women's experiences. And thus the Riot Grrrl movement was born.}}</ref> and to [[Anita Hill]]'s televised testimony in 1991—to an all-male, all-white [[Senate Judiciary Committee]]—that [[Clarence Thomas Supreme Court nomination|Clarence Thomas]], nominated for the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], had [[Clarence Thomas Supreme Court nomination#Sexual harassment allegations|sexually harassed]] her. The term ''third wave'' is credited to [[Rebecca Walker]], who responded to Thomas's appointment to the Supreme Court with an article in ''[[Ms. (magazine)|Ms.]]'' magazine, "Becoming the Third Wave" (1992).<ref name="MsMagazineThirdWave">{{cite magazine | last1 = Walker| first1 = Rebecca| author-link1 = Rebecca Walker| title = Becoming the Third Wave| magazine = Ms. | pages = 39–41| issn = 0047-8318| oclc = 194419734| date = January 1992| url = http://www.msmagazine.com/spring2002/BecomingThirdWaveRebeccaWalker.pdf| access-date = 21 February 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170115202333/http://www.msmagazine.com/spring2002/BecomingThirdWaveRebeccaWalker.pdf| archive-date = 15 January 2017| url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Baumgardner_Richards">{{cite book|title=Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism, and the Future |last1=Baumgardner |first1=Jennifer |author1-link=Jennifer Baumgardner |last2=Richards |first2=Amy |author2-link=Amy Richards |year=2000 |publisher=[[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-374-52622-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/manifestayoungwo00baum/page/77 77] |url=https://archive.org/details/manifestayoungwo00baum/page/77 }}</ref> She wrote:

{{blockquote|So I write this as a plea to all women, especially women of my generation: Let Thomas' confirmation serve to remind you, as it did me, that the fight is far from over. Let this dismissal of a woman's experience move you to anger. Turn that outrage into political power. Do not vote for them unless they work for us. Do not have sex with them, do not break bread with them, do not nurture them if they don't prioritize our freedom to control our bodies and our lives. I am not a post-feminism feminist. I am the Third Wave.<ref name="MsMagazineThirdWave"/>}}

Third-wave feminism also sought to challenge or avoid what it deemed the second wave's [[Essentialism|essentialist]] definitions of [[femininity]], which, third-wave feminists argued, overemphasized the experiences of upper middle-class white women. Third-wave feminists often focused on "[[wikt:micropolitics|micro-politics]]" and challenged the second wave's paradigm as to what was, or was not, good for women, and tended to use a [[post-structuralism|post-structuralist]] interpretation of gender and sexuality.<ref name=NoTurningBack464/><ref name="Henry">{{cite book |last=Henry |first=Astrid |url=https://archive.org/details/notmymotherssist0000henr/page/1/mode/2up |title=Not My Mother's Sister: Generational Conflict and Third-Wave Feminism |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-253-21713-4 |location=Bloomington |pages=1–288 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=Gillis>{{cite book |last1=Gillis |first1=Stacy |last2=Howie |first2=Gillian |last3=Munford |first3=Rebecca |title=Third Wave Feminism: A Critical Exploration |year=2007 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-230-52174-2 |pages=xxviii, 275–76}}</ref><ref name=Faludi>{{cite book |last=Faludi |first=Susan |author-link=Susan Faludi |title=Backlash: The Undeclared War Against Women |year=1992 |publisher=Vintage |location=London |isbn=978-0-09-922271-2}}{{page needed|date=October 2012}}</ref> Feminist leaders rooted in the second wave, such as [[Gloria Anzaldúa]], [[bell hooks]], [[Chela Sandoval]], [[Cherríe Moraga]], [[Audre Lorde]], [[Maxine Hong Kingston]], and many other non-white feminists, sought to negotiate a space within feminist thought for consideration of race-related subjectivities.<ref name=Gillis/><ref name=Walker/><ref name=Heywood>{{cite book |last1=Leslie |first1=Heywood |last2=Drake |first2=Jennifer |title=Third Wave Agenda: Being Feminist, Doing Feminism |year=1997 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |location=Minneapolis |isbn=978-0-8166-3005-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/thirdwaveagendab0000unse }}{{page needed|date=October 2012}}</ref> Third-wave feminism also contained internal debates between [[difference feminism|difference feminists]], who believe that there are important psychological differences between the sexes, and those who believe that there are no inherent psychological differences between the sexes and contend that gender roles are due to [[social conditioning]].<ref name=Gilligan>{{cite book |last=Gilligan |first=Carol |author-link=Carol Gilligan |title=In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development |url=https://archive.org/details/indifferentvoic000gill |url-access=registration |year=1993 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-674-44544-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/indifferentvoic000gill/page/184 184]}}</ref>

==== Standpoint theory ====

Standpoint theory is a feminist theoretical point of view stating that a person's social position influences their knowledge. This perspective argues that research and theory treat women and the feminist movement as insignificant and refuses to see traditional science as unbiased.<ref>{{Cite web|title = standpoint theory {{!}} feminism|url = https://www.britannica.com/topic/standpoint-theory|website = Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date = 10 February 2016}}</ref> Since the 1980s, [[Standpoint feminism|standpoint feminists]] have argued that the feminist movement should address global issues (such as rape, [[incest]], and prostitution) and culturally specific issues (such as [[female genital mutilation]] in some parts of [[Women in Africa|Africa]] and [[Women in Arab societies|Arab societies]], as well as [[glass ceiling]] practices that impede women's advancement in developed economies) in order to understand how gender inequality interacts with racism, [[homophobia]], [[classism]] and [[colonization]] in a "[[matrix of domination]]".<ref name="BFT"/><ref name=Harding2003>{{cite book |last=Harding |first=Sandra |author-link=Sandra Harding |title=The Feminist Standpoint Theory Reader: Intellectual and Political Controversies |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-94501-1 |pages=1–16, 67–80}}</ref>

==== Fourth-wave feminism ====
{{main|Fourth-wave feminism}}
[[File:Iruñeko bortxaketaren auzia 5.jpg|thumb|Protest against [[La Manada sexual abuse case]] sentence, Pamplona, 2018]]

Fourth-wave feminism is a proposed extension of third-wave feminism which corresponds to a resurgence in interest in feminism beginning around 2012 and associated with the use of social media.<ref name=4thWave-Guardian20131210/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Feminism: A fourth wave? {{!}} The Political Studies Association (PSA)|url=https://www.psa.ac.uk/psa/news/feminism-fourth-wave|access-date=29 November 2021|website=Feminism: A fourth wave? {{!}} The Political Studies Association (PSA)}}</ref> According to feminist scholar Prudence Chamberlain, the focus of the fourth wave is justice for women and opposition to sexual harassment and violence against women. Its essence, she writes, is "incredulity that certain attitudes can still exist".{{sfn|Chamberlain|2017|p=115}}

Fourth-wave feminism is "defined by technology", according to [[Kira Cochrane]], and is characterized particularly by the use of [[Facebook]], [[Twitter]], [[Instagram]], [[YouTube]], [[Tumblr]], and blogs such as [[Feministing]] to challenge [[misogyny]] and further [[gender equality]].<ref name="4thWave-Guardian20131210">{{cite news|last=Cochrane|first=Kira|author-link=Kira Cochrane|date=10 December 2013|title=The Fourth Wave of Feminism: Meet the Rebel Women|newspaper=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/10/fourth-wave-feminism-rebel-women|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210221939/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/10/fourth-wave-feminism-rebel-women|archive-date=10 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Solomon|first=Deborah|date=13 November 2009|title=The Blogger and Author on the Life of Women Online|work=[[The New York Times Magazine]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/15/magazine/15fob-q4-t.html|url-status=live|access-date=16 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501082226/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/15/magazine/15fob-q4-t.html?_r=3|archive-date=1 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zerbisias|first=Antonia|date=16 September 2015|title=Feminism's Fourth Wave is the Shitlist|url=https://nowtoronto.com/news/feminisms-fourth-wave-is-the-shitlist/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817170127/https://nowtoronto.com/feminisms-fourth-wave-is-the-shitlist|archive-date=17 August 2020|access-date=21 April 2016|website=NOW Toronto}}</ref>

[[File:Women's March on Washington (32593123745).jpg|thumb|left|[[2017 Women's March]], Washington, D.C.]]

Issues that fourth-wave feminists focus on include [[street harassment|street]] and [[workplace harassment]], [[campus sexual assault]] and rape culture. Scandals involving the harassment, abuse, and murder of women and girls have galvanized the movement. These have included the [[2012 Delhi gang rape]], 2012 [[Jimmy Savile sexual abuse scandal|Jimmy Savile allegations]], the [[Bill Cosby sexual assault case|Bill Cosby allegations]], [[2014 Isla Vista killings]], 2016 [[trial of Jian Ghomeshi]], 2017 [[Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse allegations|Harvey Weinstein allegations]] and subsequent [[Weinstein effect]], and the [[2017 Westminster sexual scandals]].<ref>For Cosby, Ghomeshi, #MeToo, and fourth wave, see Matheson, Kelsey (17 October 2017). [http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/kelsey-matheson/you-said-metoo-now-what-are-we-going-to-do-about-it_a_23246129/ "You Said #MeToo. Now What Are We Going To Do About It?"], ''The Huffington Post''.{{pb}}
For Savile and fourth wave, see {{harvnb|Chamberlain|2017|pp=114–115}}{{pb}}
For page three, Thorpe, Vanessa (27 July 2013). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/27/new-generation-of-feminists-set-agenda "What now for Britain's new-wave feminists – after page 3 and £10 notes?"], ''The Guardian''.{{pb}}
For Isla Vista killings, see {{cite news|url=http://time.com/3319081/whyistayed-hashtag-feminism-activism/ |title=Behold the Power of #Hashtag Feminism |last=Bennett |first=Jessica |date=10 September 2014 |magazine=Time}}</ref>

[[File:8M Paraná 2019 13.jpg|thumb|right|[[International Women's Strike]], Paraná, Argentina, 2019]]

Examples of fourth-wave feminist campaigns include the [[Everyday Sexism Project]], [[No More Page 3]], [[Stop Bild Sexism]], ''[[Mattress Performance (Carry That Weight)|Mattress Performance]]'', ''[[10 Hours of Walking in NYC as a Woman]]'', [[YesAllWomen|#YesAllWomen]], [[Free the Nipple (campaign)|Free the Nipple]], [[One Billion Rising]], the [[2017 Women's March]], the [[2018 Women's March]], and the [[Me Too (hashtag)|#MeToo]] movement. In December 2017, [[Time (magazine)|''Time'']] magazine chose several prominent female activists involved in the #MeToo movement, dubbed "the silence breakers", as [[Time Person of the Year|Person of the Year]].<ref name=Zacharek6Dec2017>Zacharek, Stephanie; Dockterman Eliana; and Sweetland Edwards, Haley (6 December 2017). [http://time.com/time-person-of-the-year-2017-silence-breakers/ "The Silence Breakers"], ''Time''.</ref><ref>Redden, Molly, and agencies (6 December 2017). [https://www.theguardian.com/media/2017/dec/06/metoo-movement-named-time-magazines-person-of-the-year "#MeToo movement named Time magazine's Person of the Year"], ''The Guardian''.</ref>

=== Decolonial feminism ===
Decolonial feminism reformulates the [[coloniality of gender]] by critiquing the very formation of gender and its subsequent formations of [[patriarchy]] and the [[gender binary]], not as universal constants across cultures, but as structures that have been instituted by and for the benefit of [[European colonialism]]. [[Maria Lugones|Marìa Lugones]] proposes that decolonial feminism speaks to how "the colonial imposition of gender cuts across questions of ecology, economics, government, relations with the spirit world, and knowledge, as well as across everyday practices that either habituate us to take care of the world or to destroy it." Decolonial feminists like [[Karla Jessen Williamson]] and Rauna Kuokkanen have examined colonialism as a force that has imposed [[Gender hierarchy|gender hierarchies]] on Indigenous women that have disempowered and fractured Indigenous communities and ways of life.

==== Postfeminism ====
{{main|Postfeminism}}
The term [[postfeminism]] is used to describe a range of viewpoints reacting to feminism since the 1980s. While not being "anti-feminist", postfeminists believe that women have achieved second wave goals while being critical of third- and fourth-wave feminist goals. The term was first used to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism, but it is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second wave's ideas.<ref name=Wright2000>{{cite book |last=Wright |first=Elizabeth |title=Lacan and Postfeminism (Postmodern Encounters) |year=2000 |publisher=Totem Books |isbn=978-1-84046-182-4}}</ref> Other postfeminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to today's society.<ref name="Abbott">{{cite book |last1=Abbott |first1=Pamela |last2=Tyler |first2=Melissa |last3=Wallace |first3=Claire |title=An Introduction to Sociology: Feminist Perspectives |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-38245-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PPp7dfrNTroC&q=no+longer+relevant xi] |edition=3rd}}</ref><ref name="Mateo–Gomez">{{cite book |last1=Mateo–Gomez |first1=Tatiana |editor1-last=Richter |editor1-first=William L. |title=Approaches to Political Thought |date=2009 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4616-3656-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mQn-AAAAQBAJ&q=feminism+no+longer+relevant 279] |chapter=Feminist Criticism}}</ref> [[Amelia Jones]] has written that the postfeminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jones |first=Amelia |chapter=Postfeminism, Feminist Pleasures, and Embodied Theories of Art |title=New Feminist Criticism: Art, Identity, Action |editor1-first=Joana |editor1-last=Frueh |editor2-first=Cassandra L. |editor2-last=Langer |editor3-first=Arlene |editor3-last=Raven |location=New York |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1994 |pages=16–41, 20}}</ref> Dorothy Chunn describes a "blaming narrative" under the postfeminist moniker, where feminists are undermined for continuing to make demands for gender equality in a "post-feminist" society, where "gender equality has (already) been achieved". According to Chunn, "many feminists have voiced disquiet about the ways in which rights and equality discourses are now used against them".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chunn|first=Dorothy E.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ASc568aunFoC&q=Take+It+Easy+Girls%22:+Feminism,+Equality,+and+Social+Change+in+the+Media&pg=PA31|title=Reaction and Resistance: Feminism, Law, and Social Change|date=1 November 2011|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-4036-1|editor-last=Chunn|editor-first=Dorothy E.|location=|pages=31|chapter="Take It Easy Girls": Feminism, Equality, and Social Change in the Media (2007)|editor-last2=Boyd|editor-first2=Susan|editor-last3=Lessard|editor-first3=Hester}}</ref>
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