Christianpedia - User contributions [en]

Jesus in Christianity

2024-04-16T19:52:49Z

2A00:23C6:F389:B301:E94F:7595:CDDA:677B: New

{{Short description|Jesus as seen in the Christian tradition}}
[[File:Jerusalem Holy Sepulchre BW 22.JPG|thumb|The [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] is a [[holy site]] in [[Jerusalem]] believed by most [[Christians]] to encompass the [[tomb of Jesus]] and the site of his crucifixion and resurrection.]]
{{Jesus}}
In [[Christianity]], [[Jesus]] is believed to be the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]] as chronicled in the Bible's [[New Testament]], and in most [[Christian denomination]]s he is held to be [[God the Son]], a [[prosopon]] (person) of the [[Trinity]] of God.

Christians believe him to be the [[messiah]], or a saviour (giving him the title ''[[Christ (title)|Christ]]''), [[Old Testament messianic prophecies quoted in the New Testament|who was prophesied]] in the Bible's [[Old Testament]]. Through [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Jesus's crucifixion]] and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]], Christians believe that [[God in Christianity|God]] offers humans [[Salvation (Christianity)|salvation]] and [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]],<ref>''Oxford Companion to the Bible'' p. 649.</ref> with Jesus's death [[Salvation in Christianity#Atonement|atoning]] for all [[Christian views on sin|sin]], thus making humanity right with God. The commonly held belief among Christians is the phrase, "Jesus died for your sins," and thus they accept that salvation is only possible through him.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans+3%3A23-25&version=NIV|title=Romans 3:23–25 NIV — Bible Gateway}}</ref>

These teachings emphasize that as the [[Lamb of God]], Jesus chose to suffer nailed to the cross at [[Calvary]] as a sign of his obedience to the will of God, as an "agent and servant of God".<ref name=anselm >''The Christology of Anselm of Canterbury'' by Dániel Deme 2004 {{ISBN|0-7546-3779-4}}, pp. 199–200</ref><ref name=Cullmann/> Jesus's choice positions him as a man of obedience, in contrast to [[Adam]]'s disobedience.<ref name=Pannenberg >''Systematic Theology, Volume 2'' by Wolfhart Pannenberg 2004 0567084663 ISBN, pp. 297–303</ref> According to the New Testament, after God raised him from the dead,<ref>{{bibleref2|Acts|2:24|NIV}}, {{bibleref2|Romans|10:9|NIV}}, {{bibleref2|1Cor|15:15|NIV}}, {{bibleref2|Acts|2:31-32}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Acts|3:15}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Acts|3:26}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Acts|4:10}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Acts|5:30}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Acts|10:40–41}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Acts|13:30}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Acts|13:34}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Acts|13:37}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Acts|17:30–31}}, {{bibleref2|1Cor|6:14}}, {{bibleref2|2Cor|4:14}}, {{bibleref2|Gal|1:1}}, {{bibleref2|Eph|1:20}}, {{bibleref2|Col|2:12}}, {{bibleref2|1Thess|1:10}}, {{bibleref2|Heb|13:20}}, {{bibleref2|1Pet|1:3}}, {{bibleref2-nb|1Pet|1:21}}</ref> Jesus [[Ascension of Jesus|ascended]] to heaven to [[Session of Christ|sit]] at the [[right hand of God]],<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|16:19}}, {{bibleref2|Luke|22:69}}, {{bibleref2|Acts|2:33}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Acts|5:31}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Acts|7:55–56}}, {{bibleref2|Romans|8:34}}, {{bibleref2|Eph|1:20}}, {{bibleref2|Col|3:1}}, {{bibleref2|Hebrews|1:3}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Hebrews|1:13}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Hebrews|10:12}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Hebrews|12:2}}, {{bibleref2|1Peter|3:22}}</ref> with his followers awaiting his [[Second Coming|return to Earth]] and God's subsequent [[Last Judgment]].<ref>{{bibleref2|Acts|1:9–11}}</ref>

According to the [[gospel]] accounts, Jesus was [[Virgin birth of Jesus|born of a virgin]], [[Ministry of Jesus|instructed]] other [[Jews]] how to follow God (sometimes using [[Parables of Jesus|parables]]), performed [[miracles of Jesus|miracles]] and gathered [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]]. [[Christians]] generally believe that this narrative is [[Historicity of Jesus|historically true]].

While there has been theological debate over the nature of Jesus, [[Trinity|Trinitarian]] Christians believe that Jesus is the [[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]], [[Incarnation (Christianity)|God incarnate]] (God in human form), God the Son, and "[[Hypostatic union|true God and true man]]"—both fully divine and fully human. Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin.

== Core teachings ==
Although Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize the key elements of the beliefs shared by major Christian denominations by analyzing their [[catechism|catechetical]] or [[Confessionalism (religion)|confessional]] texts.<ref name=CathLuther1 >Jackson, Gregory Lee, ''Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a doctrinal comparison'' 1993 {{ISBN|978-0-615-16635-3}} Part One: "Areas of Agreement", pages 11-17</ref><ref>''The Orthodox Church: An Introduction to Its History, Doctrine'' by John Anthony McGuckin 2010 pages 6-7</ref><ref>''Basic Christian doctrine'' by [[John H. Leith]] 1993 pages 1-2</ref> Christian views of Jesus are derived from various biblical sources, particularly from the [[canonical gospels]] and [[New Testament]] letters such as the [[Pauline epistles]]. Christians predominantly hold that these works are historically true.<ref>Second Vatican Council, [https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html ''Dei Verbum'' (V.19)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531175312/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html |date=2014-05-31 }}; Thomas Aquinas, [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/100110.htm ''Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses?''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060906114843/http://www.newadvent.org/summa/100110.htm |date=2006-09-06 }}; c.f. Catechism of the Catholic Church, [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III §116] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325191945/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III |date=2015-03-25 }}; R.C. Sproul, ''Knowing Scripture'' pp. 45–61; Greg Bahnsen, [http://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm ''A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics'' (art. 6)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204091801/http://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm |date=2014-12-04 }}; Scott Foutz, [https://web.archive.org/web/20000414063800/http://www.quodlibet.net/luther.shtml '' Martin Luther and Scripture'']</ref>

Those Christian groups or denominations which are committed to what are considered biblically [[Orthodoxy|orthodox]] Christianity nearly all agree that Jesus:<ref>"Who is Jesus? What Do Christians Believe?" Johns Hopkins University. Graduate Christian Fellowship. [http://jhu.edu/gcf/beliefs.html#J] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130304063444/http://www.jhu.edu/gcf/beliefs.html#J|date=2013-03-04}} 1 May 2013</ref>
*was born of a virgin
*is a human being who is also fully God
*had never sinned during his existence
*was crucified and buried in a tomb
*rose from the dead on the third day
*ascended back to God the Father 40 days after his resurrection
*will return to earth<ref>cf. {{Bibleref2|John|14:1-3}}, {{Bibleref2|Acts|1:10-11}}, {{Bibleref2|Luke|21:27}}, {{Bibleref2|Revelation|1:7}}</ref>
Some groups which are considered to be Christian hold beliefs which are considered to be [[heterodoxy|heterodox]]. For example, believers in [[monophysitism]] reject the idea that [[Christ (title)|Christ]] has two natures, one human and one divine.<ref>{{cite book |title=An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k85JKr1OXcQC&pg=PA902|year=2007|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-5856-7|page=902}}</ref>

The five major milestones in the gospel narrative of the life of Jesus are his [[Baptism of Jesus|baptism]], [[Transfiguration of Jesus|transfiguration]], Crucifixion, Resurrection and [[Ascension of Jesus|Ascension]].<ref name=digby >''Essays in New Testament interpretation'' by Charles Francis Digby Moule 1982 {{ISBN|0-521-23783-1}} page 63</ref><ref>''The Melody of Faith: Theology in an Orthodox Key'' by Vigen Guroian 2010 {{ISBN|0-8028-6496-1}} page 28</ref><ref name=JBreck12 /> These are usually bracketed by two other episodes: his [[Nativity of Jesus|nativity]] at the beginning and the sending of the [[Paraclete]] (Holy Spirit) at the end.<ref name=digby /><ref name=JBreck12 >''Scripture in tradition'' by John Breck 2001 {{ISBN|0-88141-226-0}} page 12</ref> The gospel accounts of the teachings of Jesus are often presented in terms of specific categories involving his "works and words", e.g., his [[Ministry of Jesus|ministry]], [[Parables of Jesus|parables]] and [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]].<ref name=Zuck100 >''The Bible Knowledge Commentary'' by John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983 {{ISBN|0-88207-812-7}} page 100</ref><ref name=WPent212 >''The words and works of Jesus Christ'' by J. Dwight Pentecost 2000 {{ISBN|978-0-310-30940-6}} page 212</ref>

Christians not only attach theological significance to the ''works'' of Jesus, but also to his ''name''. Devotions to the [[Holy Name of Jesus|name of Jesus]] go back to the [[Early Christianity|earliest days of Christianity]].<ref name=Sylvester >Hunter, Sylvester. ''Outlines of dogmatic theology'', Volume 2. 2010 {{ISBN|1-146-98633-5}} p. 443</ref><ref name=Houlden>Houlden, Leslie. ''Jesus: the Complete Guide'', 2006. {{ISBN|0-8264-8011-X}} p. 426</ref> These exist today both in [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]] and [[Western Christianity]]—both Catholic and Protestant.<ref name="Houlden"/>

Christians predominantly profess that through Jesus' life, death, and Resurrection, he restored humanity's communion with God with the blood of the [[New Covenant]]. His death on a cross is understood as a redemptive sacrifice: the source of humanity's [[salvation]] and the [[Atonement in Christianity|atonement]] for [[sin]]<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §606–618; Council of Trent (1547) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, ''Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum'' (1965) §1529; {{bibleref2|John|14:2–3}}</ref> which had entered human history through [[original sin|the sin of Adam]].<ref>''Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England,'' article 9; ''Augsburg Confession,'' article 2; ''Second Helvetic Confession,'' chapter 8; {{bibleref2|Romans|5:12–21}}; {{bibleref2|1Cor.|15:21–22}}.</ref>

==Christ, ''Logos'' and Son of God==
[[File:Sargis Pitsak.jpg|thumb|upright|First page of [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], by [[Sargis Pitsak]] (14th century): "The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God".]]
{{blockquote|''But who do you say that I am?'' Only Simon Peter answered him: ''You are the Christ, the Son of the living God'' — [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#16:15|Matthew 16:15-16]]<ref>''Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology'' by Jack Dean Kingsbury, Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer 1999 {{ISBN|0-664-25752-6}} page xvi and 109</ref>}}
{{Blockquote|Jesus is mediator, but […] the title means ''more'' than someone ''between'' God and man. He is not just a third party between God and humanity. [...] As true God he brings God to mankind. As true man he brings mankind to God.<ref name=Stagg>Stagg, Frank. ''New Testament Theology.'' Broadman Press, 1962. {{ISBN|0-8054-1613-7}}</ref>}}

Most Christians generally consider Jesus to be the Christ, the long-awaited [[Messiah]], as well as the one and only Son of God. The opening words in the [[Gospel of Mark]] ([[s:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#1:1|1:1]]), "The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God", provide Jesus with the two distinct attributions as Christ and as the Son of God. His [[divinity]] is again re-affirmed in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#1:11|Mark 1:11]].<ref>''Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity'' by Larry W. Hurtado 2005 {{ISBN|0-8028-3167-2}} page 288</ref> [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#1:1|Matthew 1:1]] which begins by calling Jesus the Christ and [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#1:16|in verse 16]] explains it again with the affirmation: "Jesus, who is called Christ".

In the Pauline epistles, the word ''[[Christ (title)|Christ]]'' is so closely associated with Jesus that apparently for the [[early Christians]] there was no need to claim that Jesus was Christ, for that was considered widely accepted among them. Hence Paul could use the term ''Christos'' with no confusion about who it referred to, and as in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#4:15|1 Corinthians 4:15]] and [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Romans#12:5|Romans 12:5]] he could use expressions such as "in Christ" to refer to the followers of Jesus.<ref>''Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity'' by Larry W. Hurtado 2005 {{ISBN|0-8028-3167-2}} page 99</ref>

In the New Testament, the title "Son of God" is applied to Jesus on many occasions, from the [[Annunciation]] up to the [[Crucifixion]].<ref name=Cathenc >{{Cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14142b.htm |title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Son of God |access-date=2011-10-13 |archive-date=2020-04-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407100303/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14142b.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The declaration that Jesus is the Son of God is made by many individuals in the New Testament, and on two occasions by [[God the Father]] as a voice from Heaven, and is asserted by Jesus himself.<ref name=Cathenc /><ref name=OneTeacher >''One teacher: Jesus' teaching role in Matthew's gospel'' by John Yueh-Han Yieh 2004 {{ISBN|3-11-018151-7}} pages 240-241</ref><ref name=Pentecost >Dwight Pentecost ''The words and works of Jesus Christ'' 2000 {{ISBN|0-310-30940-9}} page 234</ref><ref name=Bromiley571 >''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1988 {{ISBN|0-8028-3785-9}} page 571-572</ref>

In [[Christology]], the concept that Christ is the ''[[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]'' (i.e., "The Word") has been important in establishing the doctrine of the divinity of Christ and his position as God the Son in the Trinity{{citation needed|date=July 2020}} as set forth in the [[Chalcedonian Creed]]. This derives from the [[John 1:1|opening of the Gospel of John]], commonly translated into English as: "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God."<ref>{{cite web|title=John 1:1|url=https://biblia.com/books/nkjv/Jn1.1|website=Biblia.com|publisher=Faithlife.com|access-date=2 August 2017}}</ref> λόγος in the original [[Koine Greek]] is translated as ''Word'' and in theological discourse, this is often left in its English [[transliteration|transliterated]] form, ''[[Logos]]''.
The easiest way to understand this is the teaching that [[Jesus]] (The Word of God) came from the bosom of [[God the Father]] and became a living being who then translated into a foetus in the womb of (Virgin Mary) through a [[supernatural]] means, as professed by believers in [[Christ]].

The [[pre-existence of Christ]] refers to the existence of Christ before his [[incarnation]] as Jesus. One of the relevant New Testament passages is [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#1:1|John 1:1-18]] where, in the Trinitarian view, Christ is identified with a pre-existent divine [[Hypostasis (philosophy)|hypostasis]] called the Logos or Word. This doctrine is reiterated in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#17:5|John 17:5]] when Jesus refers to the glory which he had with the Father "before the world was" during the [[Farewell Discourse]].<ref name=Endo >''Creation and Christology'' by Masanobu Endo 2002 {{ISBN|3-16-147789-8}} page 233</ref> {{Bibleref2|John|17:24}} also refers to the Father loving Jesus "before the foundation of the world".<ref name=Endo /> [[Nontrinitarian]] views about the pre-existence of Christ vary, with some rejecting it and others accepting it.

Following the [[Apostolic Age]], from the 2nd century forward, several controversies developed about how the human and divine are related within the person of Jesus.<ref name=Editors1999>{{Citation| last = Fahlbusch| first = Erwin| year = 1999| title = The encyclopedia of Christianity| pages = 463| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=z47zgZ75dqgC&q=Logos+as+God+in+the+early+church&pg=PA463| isbn = 0-8028-2413-7| publisher = Brill| location = Leiden, Netherland}}</ref><ref name=Rausch2003>{{Citation| last = Rausch | first = Thomas P.| year = 2003| title = Who is Jesus? : an introduction to Christology| pages = 149| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8OJCa6euw5gC&q=Justin+Martyr+christology&pg=PA148| isbn = 0-8146-5078-3| publisher = Liturgical Press| location = Collegeville, Minn.}}</ref><ref name=McGrath2007>{{Citation| last = McGrath | first = Alister E.| year = 2007| title = Christian theology : an introduction| pages = 282| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tHlY94UWi3UC&q=Justin+Martyr+christology&pg=PA282| isbn = 978-1-4051-5360-7| publisher = Blackwell| location = Malden, Mass. }}</ref> Eventually in 451, the concept of a [[hypostatic union]] was stated at the Council of Chalcedon, namely that Jesus is both fully divine and fully human.<ref name=Editors1999/><ref name=Rausch2003/><ref>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd series, Vol XIV p207, translated edition by H.R. Percival. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/ephesus.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000816024110/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/ephesus.html |date=2000-08-16 }}</ref><ref>The Seven Ecumenical Councils of the Undivided Church, trans H. R. Percival, in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd Series, ed. P. Schaff and H. Wace, (repr. Grand Rapids MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1955), XIV, pp. 192-242</ref> However, differences among Christian denominations continued thereafter, with some rejecting the hypostatic union in favor of monophysitism.

==Incarnation, Nativity and Second Adam==
{{Main|Incarnation (Christianity)|Nativity of Jesus|Second Adam}}
[[File:Geertgen tot Sint Jans, The Nativity at Night, c 1490.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Nativity at Night]]'', by [[Geertgen tot Sint Jans]], {{Circa|1490}}]]{{blockquote|''He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation. For by him all things were created, in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible''. — [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Colossians#1:15|Colossians 1:15-16]]}}

The above verse from Colossians regards the birth of Jesus as the model for all creation.<ref>Bromiley, Geoffrey W. ''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'', 1988. {{ISBN|0-8028-3785-9}}</ref><ref>Espín, Orlando O. and James B. Nickoloff.''An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies'', 2007. {{ISBN|0-8146-5856-3}}, p. 238</ref><ref>Mills, Watson E. and Roger Aubrey Bullard. ''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'', 1998. {{ISBN|0-86554-373-9}}. p. 712</ref><ref>Ryrie, Charles C. ''Basic Theology:'', 1999. {{ISBN|0-8024-2734-0}}. p. 275</ref>

[[Paul the Apostle]] viewed the birth of Jesus as an event of cosmic significance which brought forth a "new man" who undid the damage caused by the fall of the first man, Adam. Just as the [[Gospel of John|Johannine]] view of Jesus as the incarnate Logos proclaims the universal relevance of his birth, the Pauline perspective emphasizes the birth of a new man and a new world in the birth of Jesus.<ref name=Pannenberg /> Paul's [[eschatology|eschatological]] view of Jesus counter-positions him as a new man of morality and obedience, in contrast to Adam. Unlike Adam, the new man born in Jesus obeys God and ushers in a world of morality and salvation.<ref name="Pannenberg"/>

In the Pauline view, Adam is positioned as the first man and Jesus as the second: Adam, having corrupted himself by his disobedience, also infected humanity and left it with a curse as its inheritance. The birth of Jesus counterbalanced the fall of Adam, bringing forth redemption and repairing the damage done by Adam.<ref name=Daille >Daille, Jean. ''An exposition of the epistle of Saint Paul to the Philippians'', 1995. {{ISBN|0-8028-2511-7}}. pp. 194-195</ref>

In the 2nd century Church Father [[Irenaeus]] writes:
<blockquote>
"When He became incarnate and was made man, He commenced afresh the long line of human beings, and furnished us, in a brief, comprehensive manner, with salvation; so that what we had lost in Adam—namely to be according to the image and likeness of God- that we might recover in Christ Jesus."<ref name=Bethune >Bethune-Baker, James Franklin. ''An introduction to the early history of Christian doctrine'', 2005. {{ISBN|1-4021-5770-3}}. p. 334</ref><ref name=Williston >Walker, Williston. ''A History of the Christian Church'', 2010. {{ISBN|1-4400-4446-5}}. pp. 65-66</ref>
</blockquote>

In [[patristic]] theology, Paul's contrasting of Jesus as the new man versus Adam provided a framework for discussing the uniqueness of the birth of Jesus and the ensuing events of his life. The nativity of Jesus thus began to serve as the starting point for "cosmic Christology" in which the birth, life and Resurrection of Jesus have universal implications.<ref name=Pannenberg /><ref>Grillmeier, John Bowden. ''Christ in Christian Tradition: From the Apostolic Age to Chalcedon''. Aloys, 1975. {{ISBN|0-664-22301-X}}. pp. 15-19</ref><ref>Helyer, Larry R. ''The Witness of Jesus, Paul and John: An Exploration in Biblical Theology'', 2008. {{ISBN|0-8308-2888-5}} p. 282</ref> The concept of Jesus as the "new man" repeats in the cycle of birth and rebirth of Jesus from his nativity to his Resurrection: following his birth, through his morality and obedience to the Father, Jesus began a "new harmony" in the relationship between God the Father and man. The nativity and Resurrection of Jesus thus created the author and exemplar of a new humanity.<ref>Rahner, Karl. ''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'', 2004. {{ISBN|0-86012-006-6}}. pp. 474 and 1434</ref> In this view, the birth, death and Resurrection of Jesus brought about salvation, undoing the damage of Adam.<ref>Burke, Raymond L.; et al. (2008). ''Mariology: A Guide for Priests, Deacons, Seminarians, and Consecrated Persons''. {{ISBN|978-1-57918-355-4}}. pp. 613-614</ref>

As the [[genealogy of Jesus|biological son of David]], Jesus would be of the [[Who is a Jew?|Jewish race, ethnicity, nation, and culture]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.usccb.org/bible/matthew/1:6 |title=Matthew 1:6 Matthew 1:6 |access-date=2019-06-29 |archive-date=2019-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202212520/http://www.usccb.org/bible/matthew/1:6 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.usccb.org/bible/luke/3:31 |title=Luke 3:31 |access-date=2019-06-29 |archive-date=2019-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202213800/http://www.usccb.org/bible/luke/3:31 |url-status=live }}</ref> One argument against this would be a contradiction in Jesus' genealogies: Matthew saying he is the son of [[Solomon]] and Luke saying he is the son of [[Nathan (son of David)|Nathan]]—Solomon and Nathan being brothers. [[John of Damascus]] taught that there is no contradiction, for Nathan wed Solomon's wife after Solomon died in accordance with scripture, namely, [[yibbum]] (the [[mitzvah]] that a man must marry his brother's childless widow).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OToIDAAAQBAJ&dq=One+ought+also+to+observe+this%2C+that+the+law+was+that+when+a+man+died+without+seed%2C+this+man%27s+brother+should+take+to+wife+the+wife+of+the+dead+man+and+raise+up+seed+to+his+brother&pg=PT163 |title=Exposition of the Orthodox Faith, chapter XIII |access-date=2019-06-29 |archive-date=2022-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123125100/https://books.google.com/books?id=OToIDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT163&lpg=PT163&dq=One+ought+also+to+observe+this,+that+the+law+was+that+when+a+man+died+without+seed,+this+man%27s+brother+should+take+to+wife+the+wife+of+the+dead+man+and+raise+up+seed+to+his+brother&source=bl&ots=EfMhh8epRo&sig=ACfU3U2Y9_c4NOWlXFK9bmTzBGFj4BlKxQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi4gaqLr53gAhXo8YMKHQzmAycQ6AEwAXoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=One%20ought%20also%20to%20observe%20this%2C%20that%20the%20law%20was%20that%20when%20a%20man%20died%20without%20seed%2C%20this%20man's%20brother%20should%20take%20to%20wife%20the%20wife%20of%20the%20dead%20man%20and%20raise%20up%20seed%20to%20his%20brother&f=false |url-status=live |last1=Damascus |first1=Saint John of |publisher=Aeterna Press }}</ref>

Jesus grew up in Galilee and much of his ministry took place there.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Joel B. |last1=Green |first2=Scot |last2=McKnight |first3=I. Howard |last3=Marshall |author-link1=Joel B. Green |author-link2=Scot McKnight |author-link3=I. Howard Marshall |title=Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ntwNm-tOogC |publisher=InterVarsity Press |year=1992 |page=442 |isbn=978-0-8308-1777-1}}</ref> The languages spoken in Galilee and Judea during the 1st century AD include [[Jewish Palestinian Aramaic]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and [[Koine Greek|Greek]], with Aramaic being predominant.<ref name="BarrLang">{{cite journal|first=James|last= Barr|title=Which language did Jesus speak| journal=Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester|year= 1970|volume= 53|issue=1| pages= 9–29 |url=https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2973|doi= 10.7227/BJRL.53.1.2}}</ref><ref name="Porter110">{{cite book|title=Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament|url=https://archive.org/details/handbooktoexeges00port|url-access=limited|first=Stanley E.|last= Porter|year= 1997| isbn= 978-90-04-09921-0 |publisher=Brill |pages= [https://archive.org/details/handbooktoexeges00port/page/n124 110]–12}}</ref> There is substantial consensus that Jesus gave most of his teachings in Aramaic<ref>{{cite book |first=James D.G. |last=Dunn |author-link=James Dunn (theologian) |title=Jesus Remembered |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8028-3931-2 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G4qpnvoautgC |pages=313–315}}</ref> in the [[Galilean dialect]].<ref name="Allen C. Myers">{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary|title=Aramaic|quote=It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73).|page=72|isbn=0-8028-2402-1|editor=Allen C. Myers|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|publisher=William B. Eerdmans|year=1987}}</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32043/Aramaic-language|title=Aramaic language|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

The canonical gospels describe Jesus wearing [[tzitzit]] – the tassels on a [[tallit]] – in {{bibleverse|Matthew|14:36|KJV}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.usccb.org/bible/mt/14:36 |title=Matthew 14:46 |access-date=2019-06-29 |archive-date=2020-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801152744/http://www.usccb.org/bible/mt/14:36 |url-status=live }}</ref> and {{bibleverse|Luke|8:43-44|KJV}}.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.usccb.org/bible/luke/8:43 |title=Luke 8:43-44 |access-date=2019-06-29 |archive-date=2020-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801140935/http://www.usccb.org/bible/luke/8:43 |url-status=live }}</ref> Besides this, the New Testament includes no descriptions of Jesus' appearance before his death and the gospel narratives are generally indifferent to people's racial appearance or features.<ref>Robin M. Jensen "Jesus in Christian art", Chapter 29 of ''The Blackwell Companion to Jesus'' edited by Delbert Burkett 2010 {{ISBN|1-4051-9362-X}} page 477-502</ref><ref>''The likeness of the king: a prehistory of portraiture in late medieval France'' by Stephen Perkinson 2009 {{ISBN|0-226-65879-1}} page 30</ref><ref name="Kidd">{{cite book |author=Colin Kidd |year=2006 |title=The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600–2000 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=978-0-521-79324-7}}</ref>{{rp|48–51}}

==Ministry==
{{Main|Ministry of Jesus}}
{{see also|New Testament places associated with Jesus}}
[[File:Luca signorelli, comunione con gli apostoli, cortona.jpg|thumb|upright|The ''Communion of the Apostles'', by [[Luca Signorelli]], 1512]]
{{blockquote|style=margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0;|''The thief comes only in order to steal and kill and destroy. I came that they may have and enjoy life, and have it in abundance (to the full, till it overflows).''—John 10:10 (Ampl)}}
{{Quotation|style=margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0;|Jesus seemed to have two basic concerns with reference to people and the material: (1) that they be freed from the tyranny of things and (2) that they be actively concerned for the needs of others.<ref name=Stagg/>}}

In the canonical gospels, the Ministry of Jesus begins with his baptism in the countryside of [[Judea]], near the [[River Jordan]] and ends in [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]], following the [[Last Supper]].<ref name=Alister16 >McGrath, Alister E. ''Christianity: an introduction'', 2006 {{ISBN|978-1-4051-0901-7}}. pp. 16-22</ref> The [[Gospel of Luke]] ([[s:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:23|3:23]]) states that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry.<ref name=Kostenberger140 >[[Andreas J. Kostenberger|Köstenberger, Andreas J.]], L. Scott Kellum. ''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'', 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}}. p. 114</ref><ref name=ChronosPaul >[[Paul L. Maier|Maier, Paul L.]] "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" in Vardaman, Jerry and Edwin M. Yamauchi.''Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies'', 1989. {{ISBN|0-931464-50-1}}. pp. 113-129</ref> The date of the start of his ministry has been estimated at around AD 27 to 29 and the end in the range AD 30 to 36.<ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Barnett19 >Barnett, Paul. ''Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times'', 2002. {{ISBN|0-8308-2699-8}}. pp. 19-21</ref><ref name="Sanders">{{Cite book | last = Sanders | first=E.P.|title=The Historical Figure of Jesus|year = 1993 | pages = 11, 249 |publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0140144994 }}</ref>

Jesus' early Galilean ministry begins when after his baptism, he goes [[Return of Jesus to Galilee|back to Galilee]] from his time in the [[Temptation of Jesus|Judean desert]].<ref>Morris, Leon. ''The Gospel according to Matthew''. {{ISBN|0-85111-338-9}}. p. 71</ref> In this early period he preaches around Galilee and recruits [[first disciples of Jesus|his first disciples]] who begin to travel with him and eventually form the core of the early Church.<ref name=Alister16 /><ref name=Redford117 >Redford, Douglas. ''The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels'', 2007 {{ISBN|0-7847-1900-4}}. pp. 117-130</ref> The major Galilean ministry which begins in [[Matthew 8]] includes the [[commissioning of the Twelve Apostles]], and covers most of the ministry of Jesus in Galilee.<ref>Ladd, George Eldon. ''A theology of the New Testament''. p. 324</ref><ref name=Redford143 >Redford, Douglas. ''The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels'', 2007. {{ISBN|0-7847-1900-4}}. pp. 143-160</ref> The final Galilean ministry begins after the [[death of John the Baptist]] as Jesus prepares to go to Jerusalem.<ref>Cox, Steven L., Kendell H Easley. ''Harmony of the Gospels'', 2007 {{ISBN|0-8054-9444-8}}. pp. 97-110</ref><ref name=Redford165 >Redford, Douglas. ''The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels'', 2007. {{ISBN|0-7847-1900-4}}. pp. 165-180</ref>

In the later Judean ministry Jesus starts his final journey to Jerusalem through Judea.<ref name=KingsburyMark >Kingsbury, Jack Dean. ''The Christology of Mark's Gospel'', 1983 {{ISBN|0-8006-2337-1}}. pp. 91-95</ref><ref name=Barton132 >Barton, Stephen C. ''The Cambridge companion to the Gospels''. {{ISBN|0-521-00261-3}}. pp. 132-133</ref><ref>Cox, Steven L., Kendell H Easley. ''Harmony of the Gospels'', 2007 {{ISBN|0-8054-9444-8}}. pp. 121-135</ref><ref>Redford, Douglas. ''The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels'', 2007 {{ISBN|0-7847-1900-4}}. pp. 189-207</ref> As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the later [[Perea (Bible)|Perean]] ministry, about one third the way down from the Sea of Galilee along the River Jordan, he returns to the area where he was baptized.<ref>Cox, Steven L., Kendell H. Easley. ''Harmony of the Gospels'', 2007 {{ISBN|0-8054-9444-8}}. p. 137</ref><ref>Redford, Douglas. ''The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels'', 2007. {{ISBN|0-7847-1900-4}}. pp. 211-229</ref><ref>Mills, Watson E. and Roger Aubrey Bullard. ''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'', 1998. {{ISBN|0-86554-373-9}}, p. 929</ref>

The final ministry in Jerusalem is sometimes called the ''[[Passion of Jesus|Passion Week]]'' and begins with the Jesus' [[triumphal entry into Jerusalem]].<ref name=Cox155>Cox, Steven L., Kendell H Easley. ''Harmony of the Gospels'', 2007 {{ISBN|0-8054-9444-8}}. p. 155-170</ref> The gospels provide more details about the final ministry than the other periods, devoting about one third of their text to the [[Holy Week|last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem]].<ref name=Turner613 >Turner, David L. ''Matthew'', 2008. {{ISBN|0-8010-2684-9}}. p.613</ref>

==Teachings, parables and miracles==
{{Main|Parables of Jesus|Miracles of Jesus}}
[[File:Ostromir Gospel 1.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Gospel of John]], 1056]]
{{blockquote|''The words that I say unto you I speak not from myself: but the Father who dwells in me does his works.'' — [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#14:10|John 14:10]]<ref name="autogenerated98" />}}
In the New Testament the teachings of Jesus are presented in terms of his "words and works".<ref name=Zuck100 /><ref name=WPent212 /> The words of Jesus include several sermons, in addition to parables that appear throughout the narrative of the Synoptic Gospels (the gospel of John includes no parables). The works include the miracles and other acts performed during his ministry.<ref name=WPent212 />

Although the [[Canonical Gospel]]s are the major source of the teachings of Jesus, the Pauline epistles, which were likely written decades before the gospels, provide some of the earliest written accounts of the teachings of Jesus.<ref name=Blomb442 >Blomberg, Craig L. ''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey''. B & H Academic, 2009. {{ISBN|0-8054-4482-3}}. pp. 441-442</ref>

The New Testament does not present the teachings of Jesus as merely his own teachings, but equates the words of Jesus with divine revelation, with [[John the Baptist]] stating in [[s:Bible (NIV)/John#3:34|John 3:34]]: "For the one whom God has sent speaks the words of God, for God gives the Spirit without limit." and Jesus stating in [[s:Bible (NIV)/John#7:16|John 7:16]]: "My teaching is not my own. It comes from the one who sent me".<ref name="autogenerated98">Osborn, Eric Francis. ''The Emergence of Christian Theology''. Cambridge University Press, 1993. {{ISBN|978-0521430784}} p.98</ref><ref name=And108 >Köstenberger, Andreas J. ''The missions of Jesus and the disciples according to the Fourth Gospel''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1998. {{ISBN|0-8028-4255-0}} pages 108-109</ref> In [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#11:27|Matthew 11:27]] Jesus claims divine knowledge, stating: "No one knows the Son except the Father and no one knows the Father except the Son", asserting the mutual knowledge he has with the Father.<ref name="Bromiley571"/><ref>Talbert, Charles H. ''Matthew''. Baker Academic, 2010. {{ISBN|0-8010-3192-3}} p. 149</ref>

One of the most important of [[Jesus']] teachings is his [[second coming]] in [[Matthew 24]] and [[Luke 21]]. There [[Jesus]] explained the signs of the [[Eschatology|last days]], popularly known as the [[Eschatology|end-time]]. These are the days that precedes the [[second coming]] of [[Jesus Christ]], there he spoke of the signs of the end of days and what will happen to the believers in Christ, the [[persecution]] and the troubles that will come upon the world. The second coming of Jesus is mainly divided into two, namely; the [[Rapture]] and the [[Second Coming]]. The rapture being the time Jesus comes in the air to take up his saints to [[Heaven]] for a period of seven years and the second coming, being a time he comes with the [[saints]] to rule the [[earth]] for a thousand years. It is also referred to as the millennial reign.

===Discourses===
{{See also|Five Discourses of Matthew|Sermon on the Mount|Beatitudes}}
[[File:Christ Taking Leave of the Apostles.jpg|thumb|Jesus' ''[[Farewell Discourse]]'' to his eleven remaining disciples after the [[Last Supper]], from the ''[[Maestà (Duccio)|Maestà]]'' by [[Duccio]]]]
The gospels include several discourses by Jesus on specific occasions, such as the [[Farewell discourse]] delivered after the [[Last Supper]], the night before his Crucifixion.<ref name=Gail142 >O'Day, Gail R., Susan Hylen. ''John (Westminster Bible Companion)'' Westminster John Knox Press, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-664-25260-1}}, Chapter 15: The Farewell Discourse, pages 142-168</ref> Although some of the teachings of Jesus are reported as taking place within the formal atmosphere of a synagogue (e.g., in {{Bibleverse|Matthew|4:23|KJV
}}) many of the discourses are more like conversations than formal lectures.<ref name=Howick7 >Howick, E. Keith. ''The Sermons of Jesus the Messiah''. WindRiver Publishing, 2003. {{ISBN|978-1-886249-02-8}} pp. 7-9</ref>

The [[Gospel of Matthew]] has a structured set of sermons, often grouped as the [[Five Discourses of Matthew]] which present many of the key teachings of Jesus.<ref name=Cradle194 >Köstenberger, Andreas J.L. Scott Kellum, Charles L. Quarles. ''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament''. B&H Academic, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}}. pp. 194-196</ref><ref name=Keener37 >Keener, Craig S. ''The Gospel of Matthew''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-6498-7}}. pp. 37-38</ref> Each of the five discourses has some parallel passages in the [[Gospel of Mark]] or the [[Gospel of Luke]].<ref name=RTFrance >France, R.T. ''The Gospel of Matthew (New International Commentary on the New Testament)''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-2501-8}}. p.9</ref> The five discourses in Matthew begin with the [[Sermon on the Mount]], which encapsulates many of the moral teaching of Jesus and which is one of the best known and most quoted elements of the New Testament.<ref name=Howick7 /><ref name="ReferenceA">Vaught, Carl G. ''The Sermon on the Mount: a Theological Investigation''. Baylor University Press; 2nd edition, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-918954-76-3}}. pp. xi-xiv</ref> The Sermon on the Mount includes the ''[[Beatitudes]]'' which describe the character of the people of the [[Kingdom of God]], expressed as "blessings".<ref>"Beatitudes." F. L. Cross (Editor), E. A. Livingstone (Editor). ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. {{ISBN|978-0192802903}}</ref> The Beatitudes focus on love and humility rather than force and exaction and echo the key ideals of Jesus' teachings on spirituality and compassion.<ref name=Haste >Hastings, James. ''A Dictionary Of The Bible''. Oxford University Press, USA; 3rd Revised edition, 2005. {{ISBN|1-4102-1730-2}} pp.15-19</ref><ref name=Peace >Jegen, Carol Frances. ''Jesus the Peacemaker''. Sheed & Ward, 1986. {{ISBN|0-934134-36-7}}. pp. 68-71</ref><ref name=Synop >Majerník Ján, Joseph Ponessa, Laurie Watson Manhardt. ''The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke''. Sheed & Ward, 2005. {{ISBN|1-931018-31-6}}, pp.63-68</ref> The other discourses in Matthew include the ''Missionary Discourse'' in [[Matthew 10]] and the ''Discourse on the Church'' in [[Matthew 18]], providing instructions to the disciples and laying the foundation of the codes of conduct for the anticipated community of followers.<ref name=Toussaint >Toussaint, Stanley D. ''Behold the King: A Study of Matthew''. Kregel Academic & Professional, 2005. {{ISBN|0-8254-3845-4}}. pp.215-216</ref><ref>Jensen, Richard A. ''Preaching Matthew's Gospel''. CSS Publishing Company, 1998. {{ISBN|978-0-7880-1221-1}}. pp. 25 & 158</ref><ref>Chouinard, Larry. ''Matthew (The College Press NIV Commentary)''. College Press Publishing Company, 1997. {{ISBN|0-89900-628-0}}. p.321</ref>

===Parables===
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - The Good Samaritan (Le bon samaritain) - James Tissot.jpg|thumb|upright|''The Good Samaritan'' is a painting by [[James Tissot]]. The [[Parable of the Good Samaritan]] is one of the parables of Jesus.]]
The [[parables of Jesus]] represent a major component of his teachings in the gospels, the approximately thirty parables forming about one third of his recorded teachings.<ref name="Lockyer174">Lockyer, Herbert. ''All the Parables of the Bible''. Zondervan, 1988. {{ISBN|978-0-310-28111-5}}. p.174</ref><ref name="JDPentecost10">Pentecost, J. Dwight. ''The parables of Jesus: Lessons in Life from the Master Teacher''. Zondervan, 1998. {{ISBN|0-8254-3458-0}}. p.10</ref> The parables may appear within longer sermons, as well as other places within the narrative.<ref name=Howick7 /> Jesus' parables are seemingly simple and memorable stories, often with imagery, and each conveys a teaching which usually relates the physical world to the [[Spirituality|spiritual]] world.<ref name="Lisco9-11">Lisco, Friedrich Gustav, and Patrick Fairbairn. ''The parables of Jesus Explained and Illustrated Volume 29''. Nabu Press, 2010. {{ISBN|978-1149508398}}. pp.9-11</ref><ref>Oxenden, Ashton. ''The parables of our Lord.'' William Macintosh Publishers, London, 1864. ASIN: B008RW5N2S. p.6</ref>

In the 19th century, Lisco and [[Patrick Fairbairn|Fairbairn]] stated that in the parables of Jesus, "the image borrowed from the visible world is accompanied by a truth from the invisible (spiritual) world" and that the parables of Jesus are not "mere similitudes which serve the purpose of illustration, but are internal analogies where nature becomes a witness for the spiritual world".<ref name="Lisco9-11"/> Similarly, in the 20th century, calling a parable "an earthly story with a heavenly meaning",<ref name="Barclay12"/> William Barclay states that the parables of Jesus use familiar examples to lead others' minds towards heavenly concepts. He suggests that Jesus did not form his parables merely as analogies but based on an "inward affinity between the natural and the spiritual order."<ref name="Barclay12">Barclay, William. ''The Parables of Jesus''. Westminster John Knox Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-664-25828-X}} p.12.</ref>

One of the major reasons why Jesus spoke in parables to the [[Jews]] was explained to the disciples of Jesus by Jesus himself. It is found in Matthew 13:13-14; there Jesus explains why he used much of parables to the people of [[Israel]]. Jesus explained that it was so for the fulfillment of the prophecy of [[Isaiah]] the prophet, and this is found in Isaiah 6:9-10. This was for the people of Israel not to understand and realize who Jesus is and accept him, he purposely did this to make provision for [[Gentiles]]<ref>{{Citation|title=The Temple and Gentiles|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781472550286.ch-006|work=Attitudes to Gentiles in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity|year=2013 |publisher=Bloomsbury T&T Clark|doi=10.5040/9781472550286.ch-006 |isbn=978-0-56763-766-6 |access-date=2022-01-02}}</ref> to be part of the children of God.

=== Miracles of Jesus ===
{{blockquote|''Believe the miracles, that you may know and understand that the Father is in me, and I in the Father''. —[[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#10:38|John 10:38]]<ref>''The emergence of Christian theology'' by Eric Francis Osborn 1993 {{ISBN|0-521-43078-X}} page 100</ref>}}
In Christian teachings, the miracles of Jesus were as much a vehicle for his message as were his words. Many of the miracles emphasize the importance of faith, for instance in [[cleansing ten lepers]],<ref>{{bibleverse|Lk|17:19}}</ref> Jesus did not say: "My power has saved you" but says "Rise and go; your faith has saved you."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marthaler |first1=Berard L. |title=The creed: the apostolic faith in contemporary theology |url=https://archive.org/details/creedapostolicfa0000mart/page/220 |year=1993 |publisher=Twenty-Third Publications; 3rd Revised edition |isbn=0-89622-537-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/creedapostolicfa0000mart/page/220 220] }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Lockyer|first1=Herbert |title= All the Parables of the Bible|year=1988 |publisher= Zondervan|isbn=978-0-310-28111-5 |page=235}}</ref> Similarly, in the [[Jesus walks on water|Walking on Water]] miracle, [[Apostle Peter]] learns an important lesson about faith in that as his faith wavers, he begins to sink.<ref>{{bibleverse|Mt|14:34-36}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Perkins |first1=Pheme |title=Reading the New Testament: An Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/readingnewtesta00perk/page/54 |year=1988 |publisher=Paulist Press |isbn=0-8091-2939-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/readingnewtesta00perk/page/54 54] }}</ref>

[[File:Palma il Giovane 001.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Jesus [[Healing the paralytic at Bethesda|healing the paralytic]] in ''The Pool'' by [[Palma il Giovane]], 1592]]

One characteristic shared among all miracles of Jesus in the Gospel accounts is that he delivered benefits freely and never requested or accepted any form of payment for his healing miracles, unlike some high priests of his time who charged those who were healed.<ref name="Blomberg197" /> In [[s:Bible (NIV)/Matthew#10:8|Matthew 10:8]] he advised his disciples to heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse those who have leprosy, and drive out demons without payment and stated: "Freely you have received; freely give".<ref name="Blomberg197">{{cite book |last1=Blomberg |first1=Craig L. |title=Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey |year=2009 |publisher=B & H Academic |isbn=978-0-8054-4482-7 |page=197}}</ref>

Christians in general believe that Jesus' miracles were actual historical events and that his miraculous works were an important part of his life, attesting to his divinity and the [[Hypostatic union]], i.e., the dual natures of Christ's humanity and divinity in one [[hypostasis (philosophy)|hypostasis.]]<ref name="Catholic Encyclopedia on Miracles">{{Cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10338a.htm |title=Catholic Encyclopedia on Miracles |access-date=2011-10-14 |archive-date=2017-11-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116010649/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10338a.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Christians believe that while Jesus' experiences of hunger, weariness, and death were evidences of his humanity, the miracles were evidences of his deity.<ref>Lockyer, Herbert. ''All the Parables of the Bible''. Zondervan, 1988. {{ISBN|978-0-310-28111-5}}. p.25</ref><ref>Brande, William Thomas, George William Cox. ''A dictionary of science, literature, & art''. London, 1867, also Published by Old Classics on Kindle, 2009, page 655</ref><ref>Ramm, Bernard L. ''An Evangelical Christology: Ecumenic and Historic''. Regent College Publishing, 1993. {{ISBN|1-57383-008-9}}. p.45</ref>

Christian authors also view the miracles of Jesus not merely as acts of power and omnipotence, but as works of love and mercy: they were performed to show compassion for sinful and suffering humanity.<ref name="Catholic Encyclopedia on Miracles" /> Authors Ken and Jim Stocker state that "every single miracle Jesus performed was an act of love".<ref>Stocker, Ken. Jim Stocker. ''Facts, Faith, and the FAQs''. Xulon Press, 2006. {{ISBN|978-1600347535}}. p.139</ref> And each miracle involves specific teachings.<ref>Maguire, Robert. ''The Miracles of Christ''. Ulan Press, 2012. ASIN: B009QMIYOW. p.133</ref><ref>Wiersbe, Warren W. ''Classic Sermons on the Miracles of Jesus''. Kregel Academic & Professional, 1995. {{ISBN|0-8254-3999-X}}. p.132</ref>

Since according to the [[Gospel of John]]<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn|20:30||20:30}}</ref> it was impossible to narrate all the miracles performed by Jesus, the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] states that the miracles presented in the Gospels were selected for a twofold reason: first for the manifestation of God's glory, and then for their evidential value. Jesus referred to his "works" as evidences of his mission and his divinity, and in {{Bibleref2|John|5:36}} he declared that his miracles have greater evidential value than the testimony of [[John the Baptist]].<ref name="Catholic Encyclopedia on Miracles" />

==Crucifixion and atonement==
{{see also|Lamb of God}}
{{Christology}}
The accounts of the Crucifixion and subsequent Resurrection of Jesus provide a rich background for Christological analysis, from the [[canonical gospels]] to the Pauline epistles.<ref>Powell, Mark Allan (ed.) and David R. Bauer (ed.). ''Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology''. Westminster John Knox Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-664-25752-6}}. p.106</ref>

[[Johannine]] "agency christology" combines the concept that Jesus is the Son of his Father with the idea that he has come into the world as his Father's agent, commissioned and sent by the Father to represent the Father and to accomplish his Father's work. Implied in each Synoptic portrayal of Jesus is the doctrine that the salvation Jesus gives is inseparable from Jesus himself and his divine identity. Sonship and agency come together in the Synoptic gospels only in the Parable of the Vineyard ({{Bibleref2|Matthew|21:37}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|12:6}}; {{Bibleref2|Luke|20:13}}).<ref>Bauckhman, Richard. "The Johannine Jesus and the Synoptic Jesus". [http://richardbauckham.co.uk/uploads/Accessible/Johannine%20Jessus%20&%20Synoptic%20Jesus.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107005638/http://richardbauckham.co.uk/uploads/Accessible/Johannine%20Jessus%20%26%20Synoptic%20Jesus.pdf|date=2017-11-07}} 2 May 2013</ref> The submission of Jesus to crucifixion is a sacrifice made as an ''agent of God'' or ''servant of God'', for the sake of eventual victory.<ref name=Cullmann >{{cite book |last1= Cullmann|first1=Oscar |title= The Christology of the New Testament|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vc_cPAAACAAJ|year=1959 |publisher= Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=0-664-24351-7 |page=79}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sadananda |first1=Rathnakara Sadananda |title= The Johannine exegesis of God: An Exploration into the Johannine Understanding Of God|year=2004 |publisher=Walter De Gruyter Inc |isbn=3-11-018248-3 |page=281}}</ref> This builds upon the [[salvation in Christianity|salvific]] theme of the [[Gospel of John]] which begins in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#1:36|John 1:36]] with [[John the Baptist]]'s proclamation: "The Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world".<ref name=Pollard >{{cite book |last1=Pollard |first1=T. E. |title=Johannine Christology and the Early Church |url=https://archive.org/details/johanninechristo00poll|url-access=limited |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-01868-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/johanninechristo00poll/page/n33 21]}}</ref><ref name=Hengel371 >{{cite book |last1=Hengel |first1=Martin |title= Studies in Early Christology|year=2004 |publisher=T&T Clark |isbn=0-567-04280-4 |page=371}}</ref> Further reinforcement of the concept is provided in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Revelation#21:14|Revelation 21:14]] where the "lamb slain but standing" is the only one worthy of handling the scroll (i.e., the book) containing the names of those who are to be saved.<ref name=DeHaan >{{cite book |last1=De Haan |first1=M. R. |title=Studies in Revelation |year=1998 |publisher=Kregel Classics |isbn=978-0825424854 |page=103}}</ref>

A central element in the Christology presented in the [[Acts of the Apostles]] is the affirmation of the belief that the death of Jesus by crucifixion happened "with the foreknowledge of God, according to a definite plan".<ref name=Matera67 >{{cite book |last1=Matera |first1=Frank J. |title=New Testament Christology |url=https://archive.org/details/newtestamentchri0000mate/page/67 |year=1999 |publisher=Kregel Classics |isbn=0-664-25694-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/newtestamentchri0000mate/page/67 67] }}</ref> In this view, as in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#2:23|Acts 2:23]], the cross is not viewed as a scandal, for the Crucifixion of Jesus "at the hands of the lawless" is viewed as the fulfilment of the plan of God.<ref name=Matera67 /><ref>''The speeches in Acts: their content, context, and concerns'' by Marion L. Soards 1994 {{ISBN|0-664-25221-4}} page 34</ref>

Paul's Christology has a specific focus on the death and Resurrection of Jesus. For Paul, the Crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his Resurrection and the term "the cross of Christ" used in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Galatians#6:12|Galatians 6:12]] may be viewed as his abbreviation of the message of the gospels.<ref name=Schwarz132 >{{cite book |last1=Schwarz |first1=Hans |title=Christology |year=1998 |isbn=0-8028-4463-4 |pages=132–134}}</ref> For Paul, the Crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated event in history, but a cosmic event with significant [[eschatological]] consequences, as in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#2:8|1 Corinthians 2:8]].<ref name=Schwarz132 /> In the Pauline view, Jesus, obedient to the point of death ([[s:Bible (American Standard)/Philippians#2:8|Philippians 2:8]]) died "at the right time" ([[s:Bible (American Standard)/Romans#4:25|Romans 4:25]]) based on the plan of God.<ref name=Schwarz132 /> For Paul the "power of the cross" is not separable from the Resurrection of Jesus.<ref name=Schwarz132 />

[[John Calvin]] supported the "agent of God" Christology and argued that in his trial in [[Pilate's Court]] Jesus could have successfully argued for his innocence, but instead submitted to crucifixion in obedience to the Father.<ref name=CalvinC >{{cite book |last1=Edmondson |first1=Edmondson |title=Calvin's Christology |url=https://archive.org/details/calvinschristolo00edmo_868|url-access=limited |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-54154-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/calvinschristolo00edmo_868/page/n106 91]}}</ref><ref>''The Reading and Preaching of the Scriptures'' by [[Hughes Oliphant Old]] 2002 {{ISBN|0-8028-4775-7}} page 125</ref> This Christological theme continued into the 20th century, both in the [[Eastern Church|Eastern]] and [[Western Church]]es. In the Eastern Church [[Sergei Bulgakov]] argued that the Crucifixion of Jesus was "[[Pre-existence of Christ|pre-eternally]]" determined by the Father before the creation of the world, to redeem humanity from the disgrace caused by the fall of Adam.<ref name=SBulgakov >{{cite book |last1= Bulgakov |first1= Sergei |last2=Jakim |first2=Boris |title=The Lamb of God |year= 2008 |publisher= Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8028-2779-1 |page=129}}</ref> In the Western Church, [[Karl Rahner]] elaborated on the analogy that the blood of the Lamb of God (and the water from the side of Jesus) shed at the Crucifixion had a cleansing nature, similar to baptismal water.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rahner |first1=Karl |title=Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi |year=2004 |publisher=Burns & Oates |isbn=0-86012-006-6 |page=74}}</ref>

[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Mormons]] believe that the Crucifixion was the culmination of Christ's atonement, which began in the [[Gethsemane|Garden of Gethsemane]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/gs/gethsemane?lang=eng|title=churchofjesuschrist.org - Gethsemane}}</ref>

==Resurrection, Ascension, and Second Coming==
{{Main|Resurrection of Jesus|Ascension of Jesus|Second Coming of Christ}}
{{See also|Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art|Ascension of Jesus in Christian art}}
[[File:Rafael - ressureicaocristo01.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Depictions of the Resurrection of Jesus are [[Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art|central to Christian art]] (''[[Resurrection of Christ (Raphael)|Resurrection of Christ]]'' by [[Raphael]], 1499–1502).]]
The New Testament teaches that the Resurrection of Jesus is a foundation of the Christian faith.<ref>{{bibleverse|1cor|15:12-20||1 Cor 15:12-20}}, {{bibleverse|1Peter|1:3|HCSB|1 Pet 1:3}}</ref> Christians, through [[Faith in Christianity|faith]] in the working of God<ref>{{bibleverse|Colossians|2:12||Col 2:12}}</ref> are spiritually resurrected with Jesus, and are [[Redeemer (Christianity)|redeemed]] so that they may walk in a new way of life.<ref>{{bibleverse|Rom|6:4}}</ref>

In the teachings of the [[Apostolic Age|apostolic Church]], the Resurrection was seen as heralding a [[World to Come|new era]]. Forming a theology of the Resurrection fell to [[Apostle Paul]]. It was not enough for Paul to simply repeat elementary teachings, but as {{bibleverse|Hebrews|6:1|NIV}} states, "go beyond the initial teachings about Christ and advance to maturity". Fundamental to Pauline theology is the connection between Christ's Resurrection and redemption.<ref>''The creed: the apostolic faith in contemporary theology'' by Berard L. Marthaler 2007 {{ISBN|0-89622-537-2}} page 361</ref> Paul explained the importance of the Resurrection of Jesus as the cause and basis of the hope of Christians to share a similar experience in {{bibleverse|1cor|15:20-22|NIV|1 Cor 15:20-22}}:
<blockquote>
But Christ has indeed been raised from the dead, the firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep. For since death came through a man, the resurrection of the dead comes also through a man. For as in Adam all die, so in Christ all will be made alive.</blockquote>

If the cross stands at the center of Paul's theology, so does the Resurrection: unless the one died the death of ''all'', the ''all'' would have little to celebrate in the Resurrection of the one.<ref>Dunn, James D. G. ''Theology of Paul the Apostle''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2003. {{ISBN|978-0802844231}}. p. 235</ref> Paul taught that, just as Christians share in Jesus' death in baptism, so they will share in his Resurrection<ref name = "Ehrman 2006"/> for Jesus was designated the Son of God by his Resurrection.<ref>{{bibleverse|Rom.|1:4}}</ref><ref name = "Ehrman 2006">Ehrman, Bart. Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend. Oxford University Press, USA. 2006. {{ISBN|0-19-530013-0}}</ref> Paul's views went against the thoughts of the Greek philosophers to whom a bodily resurrection meant a new imprisonment in a corporeal body, which was what they wanted to avoid, given that for them the corporeal and the material fettered the spirit.<ref>Reichelt, Karl Ludvig and Sverre Holth. ''Meditation and Piety in the Far East'', 2004. {{ISBN|0-227-17235-3}} p.30</ref> At the same time, Paul believed that the newly resurrected body would be a [[spiritual body]]—immortal, glorified and powerful, in contrast to an earthly body which is mortal, dishonored and weak.<ref>{{Bibleref2|1cor|15:42-49||1 Corinthians 15:42-49}}</ref>

The [[Apostolic Fathers]], discussed the death and Resurrection of Jesus, including [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] (50−115),<ref>Ignatius makes many passing references, but two extended discussions are found in the [[Letter to the Trallians]] and the [[Letter to the Smyrnaeans]].</ref> [[Polycarp]] (69−155), and [[Justin Martyr]] (100−165).<ref>''Dialogue with Trypho'', critical edition by Philippe Bobichon : ''Dialogue avec Tryphon''. Vol. I, Editions universitaires de Fribourg, 2003, 45, 1-4 [https://www.academia.edu/7280008/JUSTIN_MARTYR_Dialogue_avec_Tryphon_Dialogue_with_Trypho_%C3%A9dition_critique_VOLUME_I_Introduction_Texte_grec_Traduction_Coll_Paradosis_%C3%A9ditions_universitaires_de_Fribourg_Suisse_no_47_1_2003_563_pages online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210402145537/https://www.academia.edu/7280008/JUSTIN_MARTYR_Dialogue_avec_Tryphon_Dialogue_with_Trypho_%C3%A9dition_critique_VOLUME_I_Introduction_Texte_grec_Traduction_Coll_Paradosis_%C3%A9ditions_universitaires_de_Fribourg_Suisse_no_47_1_2003_563_pages |date=2021-04-02 }}</ref> Following the [[Constantine I and Christianity|conversion of Constantine]] and the liberating [[Edict of Milan]] in 313, the [[First seven Ecumenical Councils|ecumenical councils]] of the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries, that focused on Christology helped shape the Christian understanding of the redemptive nature of Resurrection, and influenced both the development of its iconography, and its use within [[liturgy]].<ref>''The Resurrection and the icon'' by Michel Quenot 1998 {{ISBN|0-88141-149-3}} page 72</ref>

== Nontrinitarian perspectives ==
{{Further|Nontrinitarianism}}
The doctrine of the Trinity, including the belief that Jesus is a [[prosopon|person]] of the Trinity, is not universally accepted among Christians.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Antitrinitarianism| url=http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/A597.html| last=Friedmann|first=Robert| encyclopedia=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia |access-date=October 24, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Blessed Trinity|first=George H. |last= Joyce}}</ref> Nontrinitarian Christian groups include [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]],<ref>{{citation |title= Mormonism 101: What is Mormonism |url= http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/mormonism-101 |work= MormonNewsroom.org |publisher= LDS Church |access-date= October 21, 2014 |date= October 13, 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141021175426/http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/mormonism-101 |archive-date= October 21, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]].<ref>"Antitrinitarianism." F. L. Cross (Editor), E. A. Livingstone (Editor). ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. {{ISBN|978-0192802903}}</ref> Though modern nontrinitarian groups all reject the doctrine of the Trinity, their views still differ widely on the nature of Jesus. Some do not believe that Jesus is God, instead believing that he was a messenger from God, or prophet, or the perfect created human. This is the view espoused by ancient sects such as the [[Ebionites]],<ref>{{Cite book| author = Hyam Maccoby| title = The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity| pages = 172–183| publisher = HarperCollins | year = 1987 | isbn = 0-06-250585-8| author-link = Hyam Maccoby}}</ref> and modern-day Unitarians.<ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=Miano |title=An Explanation of Unitarian Christianity |publisher=AUC |year=2003 |page=15 |url=http://americanunitarian.org/explanation.htm |access-date=2020-06-06 |archive-date=2019-05-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521191654/http://www.americanunitarian.org/explanation.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Christianity}}
* {{annotated link|Chronology of Jesus}}
* {{annotated link|Gospel harmony}}
* {{annotated link|Great Commission}}
* {{annotated link|Holy Name of Jesus}}
* {{annotated link|Jesus in comparative mythology}}
* {{annotated link|Jesus in Islam}}
* {{annotated link|Judaism's view of Jesus}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|chapter=[[s:A Complete Catechism of the Catholic Religion/Second Article|The Second Article: 'And in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our Lord.']]|title=A Complete Catechism of the Catholic Religion|year=1912|publisher=Schwartz, Kirwin & Fauss|first= Joseph|last=Deharbe|translator=Rev. John Fander}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{Jesus footer|state=collapsed}}
{{New Testament people}}
{{Catholic Church footer}}
{{Christianity footer}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Christian Views Of Jesus}}
[[Category:Jesus in Christianity| ]]
[[Category:Demigods]]

Christology

2024-04-16T19:42:57Z

2A00:23C6:F389:B301:E94F:7595:CDDA:677B: New

{{Short description|Theological study of Jesus Christ}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
[[File:La Résurrection du Christ 1560 Véronèse.jpg|thumb|right|Paolo Veronese, ''The Resurrection of Jesus Christ'' ({{c.|1560}})]]
{{Christianity|state=collapsed|expanded=theology}}
{{Christology}}

In [[Christianity]], '''Christology''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang-grc|Χριστός|Khristós|label=none}} and {{lang-grc|[[wiktionary:-λογία|-λογία]]|[[wiktionary:-logia|-logia]]|label=none}}), translated from Greek as 'the study of Christ', is a branch of [[Christian theology|theology]] that concerns [[Jesus]]. Different denominations have different opinions on questions such as whether Jesus was human, divine, or both, and as a [[messiah]] what his role would be in the freeing of the [[Jewish people]] from foreign rulers or in the prophesied [[Kingdom of God (Christianity)|Kingdom of God]], and in the [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] from what would otherwise be the consequences of [[sin]].{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=171}}{{sfn|O'Collins|2009|pp=1–3}}{{sfn|Ramm|1993|p=15}}{{sfn|Bird|Evans|Gathercole|2014|p=134, n. 5}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=ch. 6–9}}

The earliest Christian writings gave several titles to Jesus, such as [[Son of Man]], [[Son of God]], [[Messiah]], and {{transliteration|grc|[[Kyrios]]}}, which were all derived from Hebrew scripture.<ref group=web name="EB_Christology"/> These terms centered around two opposing themes, namely "Jesus as a [[Pre-existence of Christ|preexistent figure]] who [[Incarnation (Christianity)|becomes human]] and then [[Session of Christ|returns to God]]", versus [[adoptionism]] – that Jesus was human who was "adopted" by God at his baptism, crucifixion, or resurrection.<ref group=web name="EB_Christology"/>

From the second to the fifth centuries, the relation of the human and divine nature of Christ was a major focus of debates in the [[Early centers of Christianity|early church]] and at the [[first seven ecumenical councils]]. The [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451 issued a formulation of the [[hypostatic union]] of the two natures of Christ, one human and one divine, "united with neither confusion nor division".{{sfn|Davis|1990|p=342}} Most of the major branches of Western Christianity and [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] subscribe to this formulation,{{sfn|Davis|1990|p=342}}<ref name="Olson1999"/> while many branches of [[Oriental Orthodox Churches]] reject it,{{sfn|Armentrout|Boak Slocum|2005|p=81}}{{sfn|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|p=217}}{{sfn|Beversluis|2000|pp=21–22}} subscribing to [[miaphysitism]].

==Definition and approaches==

''Christology'' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang-grc|Χριστός|Khristós|label=none}} and {{lang-grc|[[wiktionary:-λογία|-λογία]]|[[wiktionary:-logia|-logia]]|label=none}}), literally 'the understanding of Christ',{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=108}} is the study of the nature (person) and work (role in salvation){{refn|group=note|name="work"|The work of Jesus Christ:
* Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen: "soteriology, the doctrine of salvation"{{sfn|Kärkkäinen|2016}}
* biblicaltraining.org: "The Past Work of Christ, The Atoning Savior";<ref group=web>{{cite web| url = https://www.biblicaltraining.org/library/work-jesus-christ-summary/systematic-theology-ii/bruce-ware| title = ''The Work of Jesus Christ: Summary''}}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>; "Present work of Christ: work as mediator and Lord";<ref group=web name="Work.present.future">{{cite web| url = https://www.biblicaltraining.org/work-jesus-christ-summary/systematic-theology| title = ''Lecture 8: The Work of Jesus Christ: Summary''| access-date = 2 March 2019| archive-date = 6 March 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043931/https://www.biblicaltraining.org/work-jesus-christ-summary/systematic-theology| url-status = live}}</ref> "Future work of Christ: work as coming judge and reigning king"<ref group=web name="Work.present.future"/>}} of [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus Christ]].{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=171}}{{sfn|Bird|Evans|Gathercole|2014|p=134, n. 5}}{{sfn|Ramm|1993|p=15}}<ref group="web" name="EB_Christology">{{Cite web |title=Christology {{!}} Definition, History, Doctrine, Summary, Importance, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christology |access-date=2023-05-10 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=1 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301011303/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christology |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group="web" name="CathEncycl_Christology">{{Cite web |title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Christology |url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14597a.htm |access-date=2023-05-10 |website=www.newadvent.org |archive-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703041424/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14597a.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="Definitions"|Definitions:
* Bart Ehrman: "the understanding of Christ";{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=108}} "the nature of Christ{{snd}}the question of Christology"{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=171}}
* Bird, Evans & Gathercole (2014): "New Testament scholars often speak about "Christology", which is the study of the career, person, nature, and identity of Jesus Christ."{{sfn|Bird|Evans|Gathercole|2014|p=134, n. 5}}
* Raymond Brown (1994): "[C]hristology discusses any evaluation of Jesus in respect to who he was and the role he played in the divine plan."{{sfn|Brown|2004|p=3}}
* Bernard L. Ramm (1993): "Christology is the reflective and systematic study of the person and work of Jesus Christ."{{sfn|Ramm|1993|p=15}}
* Matt Stefon, Hans J. Hillerbrand (Encyclopedia Britannica): "Christology, Christian reflection, teaching, and doctrine concerning Jesus of Nazareth. Christology is the part of theology that is concerned with the nature and work of Jesus, including such matters as the Incarnation, the Resurrection, and his human and divine natures and their relationship."<ref group=web name="EB_Christology"/>
* Catholic Encyclopedia: "Christology is that part of theology which deals with Our Lord Jesus Christ. In its full extent it comprises the doctrines concerning both the person of Christ and His works."<ref group=web name="CathEncycl_Christology"/>}} It studies Jesus Christ's humanity and divinity, and the relation between these two aspects;{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=ch. 6–9}} and the role he plays in [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]].

"[[Ontology|Ontological]] Christology" analyzes the nature or being<ref group="web" name="thinkapologetics.christology">{{Cite web |last=Chabot |first=Eric |date=2009-05-11 |title=THINKAPOLOGETICS.COM: Jesus- A Functional or Ontological Christology? |url=http://thinkapologetics.blogspot.com/2009/05/jesus-functional-or-ontological.html |access-date=2023-05-10 |website=THINKAPOLOGETICS.COM |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119000728/http://thinkapologetics.blogspot.com/2009/05/jesus-functional-or-ontological.html |url-status=live }}</ref> of Jesus Christ. "Functional Christology" analyzes the works of Jesus Christ, while "[[Christian soteriology|soteriological]] Christology" analyzes the "[[Christian soteriology|salvific]]" standpoints of Christology.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chan |first=Mark L. Y. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9NQJ74t0aE4C&dq=ontological+christology&pg=PA59 |title=Christology from Within and Ahead: Hermeneutics, Contingency, and the Quest for Transcontextual Criteria in Christology |date=2001 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-11844-7 |pages=59–62 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=14 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214055527/https://books.google.com/books?id=9NQJ74t0aE4C&dq=ontological+christology&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q=ontological%20christology&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

Several approaches can be distinguished within Christology.{{refn|group=note|Bird, Evans & Gathercole (2014): "There are, of course, many different ways of doing Christology. Some scholars study Christology by focusing on the major titles applied to Jesus in the New Testament, such as "Son of Man", "Son of God", "Messiah", "Lord", "Prince", "Word", and the like. Others take a more functional approach and look at how Jesus acts or is said to act in the New Testament as the basis for configuring beliefs about him. It is possible to explore Jesus as a historical figure (i.e., Christology from below), or to examine theological claims made about Jesus (i.e., Christology from above). Many scholars prefer a socio-religious method by comparing beliefs about Jesus with beliefs in other religions to identify shared sources and similar ideas. Theologians often take a more philosophical approach and look at Jesus' "ontology" or "being" and debate how best to describe his divine and human natures."{{sfn|Bird|Evans|Gathercole|2014|p=134, n. 5}}}} The term ''Christology from above''{{sfn|O'Collins|2009|p=16-17}} or ''high Christology''{{sfn|Brown|2004|p=4}} refers to approaches that include aspects of divinity, such as Lord and Son of God, and the idea of the [[pre-existence of Christ]] as the ''[[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]'' ('the Word'),{{sfn|O'Collins|2009|pp=16–17}}{{sfn|Brown|2004|p=4}}{{sfn|Pannenberg|1968|p=33}} as expressed in the [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#1|prologue to the Gospel of John]].{{refn|group=note|{{bibleverse|John|1:1–14|ESV}}}} These approaches interpret the works of Christ in terms of his divinity. According to Pannenberg, Christology from above "was far more common in the ancient Church, beginning with [[Ignatius of Antioch]] and the second century Apologists."{{sfn|Pannenberg|1968|p=33}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bobichon |first=Philippe |date=2011-01-01 |title=Filiation divine du Christ et filiation divine des chrétiens dans les écrits de Justin Martyr |url=https://www.academia.edu/7279912 |journal=In: Patricio de Navascués Benlloch – Manuel Crespo Losada – Andrés Sáez Gutiérrez (dir.), Filiación. Cultura pagana, religión de Israel, orígenes del cristianismo, vol. III, Madrid, pp. 337-378 |access-date=27 March 2021 |archive-date=14 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214055527/https://www.academia.edu/7279912 |url-status=live }}</ref> The term ''Christology from below''{{sfn|O'Collins|2009|p=16}} or ''low Christology''{{sfn|Brown|2004|p=4}} refers to approaches that begin with the human aspects and the ministry of Jesus (including the miracles, parables, etc.) and move towards his divinity and the mystery of incarnation.{{sfn|O'Collins|2009|pp=16–17}}{{sfn|Brown|2004|p=4}}

==={{anchor|Person of Christ}}Person of Christ===
{{See also|Prosopon|Hypostatic union|Trinity}}
[[File:Christ Pantocrator niche Holy Trinity Meteora.jpg|thumb|[[Christ Pantocrator]], Holy Trinity's monastery, [[Meteora]], Greece]]

A basic Christological teaching is that the person of [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus Christ]] is both human and divine. The human and divine natures of Jesus Christ apparently (''[[Prosopon|prosopic]]'') form a duality, as they coexist within one person (''[[hypostatic union|hypostasis]]'').<ref name=Erickson >''Introducing Christian Doctrine'' by Millard J. Erickson, L. Arnold Hustad 2001, p. 234</ref> There are no direct discussions in the [[New Testament]] regarding the [[Hypostatic union|dual nature]] of the Person of Christ as both divine and human,<ref name=Erickson /> and since the early days of Christianity, theologians have debated various approaches to the understanding of these natures, at times resulting in ecumenical councils, and schisms.<ref name=Erickson />

Some historical christological doctrines gained broad support:
* [[Monophysitism]] (Monophysite controversy, 3rd–8th centuries): After the union of the divine and the human in the historical incarnation, Jesus Christ had only a single nature. Monophysitism was condemned as heretical by the [[Council of Chalcedon]] (451).
* [[Miaphysitism]] ([[Oriental Orthodox]] churches): In the person of Jesus Christ, divine nature and human nature are united in a compound nature ('physis').
* [[Dyophysitism]] ([[Eastern Orthodox Church]], [[Catholic Church]], [[Church of the East]], [[Lutheranism]], [[Anglicanism]], and the [[Reformed Church]]es): Christ maintained two natures, one divine and one human, after the Incarnation; articulated by the [[Chalcedonian Definition]].
* [[Monarchianism]] (including [[Adoptionism]] and [[Modalism]]): God as one, in contrast to the doctrine of the [[Trinity]]. Condemned as heretical in the [[Patristic era]] but followed today by certain groups of [[Nontrinitarians]].

Influential Christologies which were broadly condemned as heretical{{refn|group=note|Heretical Christologies:
* Docetism is the doctrine that the phenomenon of Jesus, his historical and bodily existence, and above all the human form of Jesus, was mere semblance without any true reality. Broadly it is taken as the belief that Jesus only seemed to be human, and that his human form was an illusion. Docetic teachings were attacked by [[Ignatius of Antioch]] and were eventually abandoned by [[Proto-orthodox Christianity|proto-orthodox Christians]].{{sfn|Ehrman|1993}}{{sfn|McGrath|2007|p=282}}
* Arianism, which viewed Jesus as primarily an ordinary mortal, was condemned as [[heretical]] in 325, exonerated in 335, and eventually re-condemned as heretical at the [[First Council of Constantinople]] (381).{{sfn|Ehrman|1993}}{{sfn|McGrath|2007|p=282}}
* Nestorianism opposed the concept of hypostatic union, and emphasized a radical distinction between the two natures (human and divine) of Jesus Christ. It was condemned by the [[Council of Ephesus]] (431).
* Monothelitism held that although Christ has two natures (Dyophysitism), his will is united. The doctrine was promoted by Emperor [[Heraclius]] and Ecumenical Patriarch [[Sergius I of Constantinople|Sergius I]] as a compromise position between Chalcedonianism and various minority christologies. It was condemned as heretical by the [[Third Council of Constantinople]] (681).}} are:
* [[Docetism]] (3rd–4th centuries) claimed the human form of Jesus was mere semblance without any true reality.
* [[Arianism]] (4th century) viewed the divine nature of Jesus, the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]], as distinct and inferior to [[God the Father]], e.g., by having a beginning in time.
* [[Nestorianism]] (5th century) considered the two natures (human and divine) of Jesus Christ almost entirely distinct.
* [[Monothelitism]] (7th century), considered Christ to have only one will.

Various church [[#Controversies and ecumenical councils (2nd-8th century)|councils]], mainly in the 4th and 5th centuries, resolved most of these controversies, making the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] orthodox in nearly all branches of Christianity. Among them, only the Dyophysite doctrine was recognized as true and not heretical, belonging to the Christian [[orthodoxy]] and [[deposit of faith]].

===Salvation===
{{Main|Salvation in Christianity|Atonement in Christianity}}

In [[Christian theology]], [[atonement]] is the method by which human beings can be reconciled to [[God in Christianity|God]] through [[Christ]]'s sacrificial suffering and [[Crucifixion of Jesus|death]].<ref>"Atonement." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Atonement is the [[Forgiveness#Christianity|forgiving]] or pardoning of [[Christian views of sin|sin]] in general and [[original sin]] in particular through the suffering, death and [[resurrection of Jesus]],<ref group=web name="CED">Collins English Dictionary, Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition, [http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/atonement ''atonement''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326021550/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/atonement |date=26 March 2023 }}, retrieved 3 October 2012: "2. (often capital) ''Christian theol''

a. the reconciliation of man with God through the life, sufferings, and sacrificial death of Christ

b. the sufferings and death of Christ"</ref> enabling the [[Reconciliation (theology)|reconciliation]] between God and [[Genesis creation narrative|his creation]]. Due to the influence of [[Gustaf Aulen|Gustaf Aulèn]]'s (1879–1978) {{lang|la|Christus Victor}} (1931), the various theories or paradigmata of atonement are often grouped as "classical paradigm", "objective paradigm", and the "subjective paradigm":{{sfn|Weaver|2001|p=2}}{{sfn|Beilby|Eddy|2009|pp=11–20}}<ref name=Aulen>[[Gustaf Aulen]], Christus Victor: An Historical Study of the Three Main Types of the Idea of Atonement, E.T. London: SPCK; New York: Macmillan, 1931</ref><ref>[[Vincent Taylor (theologian)|Vincent Taylor]], ''The Cross of Christ'' (London: Macmillan & Co, 1956), pp. 71–77

2</ref>
* Classical paradigm:{{refn|group=note|The "ransom theory" and the "Christ Victor" theory are different, but are generally considered together as Patristic or "classical" theories, to use [[Gustaf Aulén]]'s nomenclature. These were the traditional understandings of the early [[Church Fathers]].}}
** [[Ransom theory of atonement]], which teaches that the [[Crucifixion of Jesus|death]] of [[Christ]] was a [[ransom]] [[Sacrifice#Christianity|sacrifice]], usually said to have been paid to [[Satan]] or to death itself, in some views paid to [[God the Father]], in satisfaction for the bondage and debt on the souls of humanity as a result of [[Original sin|inherited sin]]. Gustaf Aulén reinterpreted the ransom theory,{{sfn|Pugh|2015|p=8}} calling it the {{lang|la|[[Christus Victor]]}} doctrine, arguing that Christ's death was not a payment to the Devil, but defeated the powers of [[evil]], which had held humankind in their dominion.;<ref>Leon Morris, 'Theories of the Atonement' in ''Elwell Evangelical Dictionary''.</ref>{{refn|group=note|According to Pugh, "Ever since [Aulén's] time, we call these patristic ideas the {{lang|la|Christus Victor}} way of seeing the cross."{{sfn|Pugh|2015|p=1}}}}
** [[Recapitulation theory of atonement|Recapitulation theory]],{{sfn|Pugh|2015|pp=1, 26}} which says that Christ succeeded where [[Adam]] [[fall of man|failed]]. [[Divinization (Christian)|Theosis]] ('divinization') is a "corollary" of the recapitulation.{{sfn|Pugh|2015|p=31}}
* Objective paradigm:
** [[Satisfaction theory of atonement]],{{refn|group=note|Called by Aulén the "scholastic" view}} developed by [[Anselm of Canterbury]] (1033/4–1109), which teaches that [[Jesus Christ]] suffered [[Crucifixion of Jesus|crucifixion]] as a [[Substitutionary atonement|substitute]] for human [[sin]], satisfying God's just wrath against humankind's transgression due to Christ's infinite merit.<ref>{{citation|last=Tuomala|first=Jeffrey|year=1993|title=Christ's Atonement as the Model for Civil Justice|journal=American Journal of Jurisprudence|volume=38|pages=221–255|doi=10.1093/ajj/38.1.221|url=https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/lusol_fac_pubs/19|access-date=11 December 2019|archive-date=17 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617080410/https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/lusol_fac_pubs/19/|url-status=live}}</ref>
** [[Penal substitution]], also called "forensic theory" and "vicarious punishment", which was a development by the Reformers of Anselm's satisfaction theory.{{sfn|Taylor|1956|pp=71–72}}{{sfn|Packer|1973}}{{refn|group=note|name="Penal substitution"|Penal substitution:

* Vincent Taylor (1956): "the ''four main types'', which have persisted throughout the centuries. The oldest theory is the ''Ransom Theory''{{nbsp}}[...] It held sway for a thousand years{{nbsp}}[...] The ''Forensic Theory'' is that of the Reformers and their successors."{{sfn|Taylor|1956|pp=71–72}}
* Packer (1973): "Luther, Calvin, Zwingli, Melanchthon and their reforming contemporaries were the pioneers in stating it [i.e. the penal substitutionary theory]{{nbsp}}[...] What the Reformers did was to redefine {{lang|la|satisfactio}} (satisfaction), the main mediaeval category for thought about the cross. Anselm's {{lang|la|Cur Deus Homo?}}, which largely determined the mediaeval development, saw Christ's {{lang|la|satisfactio}} for our sins as the offering of compensation or damages for dishonour done, but the Reformers saw it as the undergoing of vicarious punishment (poena) to meet the claims on us of God's holy law and wrath (i.e. his punitive justice)."{{sfn|Packer|1973}}}}{{refn|group=note|name="Baker.2006"|Mark D. Baker, objecting against the pebal substitution theory, states that "substitution is a broad term that one can use with reference to a variety of metaphors."{{sfn|Baker|2006|p=25}}}} Instead of considering sin as an affront to God's honour, it sees sin as the breaking of God's moral law. Penal substitution sees sinful man as being subject to God's wrath, with the essence of Jesus' saving work being his substitution in the sinner's place, bearing the curse in the place of man.
** [[Governmental theory of atonement]], "which views God as both the loving creator and moral Governor of the universe."{{sfn|Beilby|Eddy|2009|p=17}}
* Subjective paradigm:
**[[Moral influence theory of atonement]],{{refn|group=note|Which Aulén called the "subjective" or "humanistic" view. Propagated, as a critique of the satisfaction view, by [[Peter Abelard]]}} developed, or most notably propagated, by [[Abelard]] (1079–1142),{{sfn|Weaver|2001|p=18}}{{sfn|Beilby|Eddy|2009|p=18}} who argued that "Jesus died as the demonstration of God's love", a demonstration which can change the hearts and minds of the sinners, turning back to God.{{sfn|Weaver|2001|p=18}}{{sfn|Beilby|Eddy|2009|p=19}}
** [[Moral example theory]], developed by [[Faustus Socinus]] (1539–1604) in his work {{lang|la|De Jesu Christo servatore}} (1578), who rejected the idea of "vicarious satisfaction".{{refn|group=note|Christ suffering for, or punished for, the sinners.}} According to Socinus, Jesus' death offers humanity a perfect example of self-sacrificial dedication to God.{{sfn|Beilby|Eddy|2009|p=19}}

Other theories are the "embracement theory" and the "shared atonement" theory.<ref>Jeremiah, David. 2009. ''Living With Confidence in a Chaotic World,'' pp. 96 & 124. Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, Inc.</ref><ref>Massengale, Jamey. 2013.''Renegade Gospel, The Jesus Manifold''</ref>

==Early Christologies (1st century)==
{{See also|Christ (title)|l1=|Resurrection#Christianity|l2=Resurrection|Session of Christ|l3=Exaltation of Christ|Pre-existence of Christ|l4=Pre-existence of Christ|Incarnation (Christianity)|l5=Incarnation of Christ}}

===Early notions of Christ===
The earliest christological reflections were shaped by both the Jewish background of the earliest Christians, and by the Greek world of the eastern Mediterranean in which they operated.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=137–141}}<ref group=web name="EB_Christology"/>{{refn|group=note|[[Early Christians]] found themselves confronted with a set of new concepts and ideas relating to the life, death, and [[resurrection of Jesus]], as well the notions of [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] and [[Redeemer (Christianity)|redemption]], and had to use a new set of terms, images, and ideas in order to deal with them.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=137–141}} The existing terms and structures which were available to them were often insufficient to express these religious concepts, and taken together, these new forms of discourse led to the beginnings of Christology as an attempt to understand, explain, and discuss their understanding of the nature of Christ.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=137–141}} Early Jewish Christians had to explain their concepts to a Hellenistic audience which had been influenced by Greek philosophy, presenting arguments that at times resonated with, and at times confronted, the beliefs of that audience. This is exemplified by the [[Apostle Paul]]'s [[Areopagus sermon]] that appears in Acts 17:16–34,<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|17:16–34}}</ref> where Paul is portrayed as attempting to convey the underlying concepts about Christ to a Greek audience. The sermon illustrates some key elements of future christological discourses that were first brought forward by Paul.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=137–41}}<ref>''Creation and redemption: a study in Pauline theology'' by John G. Gibbs 1971 Brill Publishers pp. 151–153</ref><ref name=Watson >''Mercer Commentary on the New Testament'' by Watson E. Mills 2003 {{ISBN|0-86554-864-1}} pp. 1109–1110</ref>}} The earliest Christian writings give several titles to Jesus, such as [[Son of Man]], [[Son of God]], [[Messiah]], and ''[[Kyrios]]'', which were all derived from Hebrew scripture.<ref group=web name="EB_Christology"/>{{sfn|Brown|2004|p=4}} According to Matt Stefon and Hans J. Hillerbrand:

{{Blockquote|Until the middle of the 2nd century, such terms emphasized two themes: that of Jesus as a preexistent figure who becomes human and then returns to God and that of Jesus as a creature elected and "adopted" by God. The first theme makes use of concepts drawn from Classical antiquity, whereas the second relies on concepts characteristic of ancient Jewish thought. The second theme subsequently became the basis of "adoptionist Christology" (see [[adoptionism]]), which viewed Jesus' baptism as a crucial event in his adoption by God.<ref group=web name="EB_Christology"/>}}

Historically in the [[Alexandrian school]] of thought (fashioned on the [[Gospel of John]]), Jesus Christ is the eternal ''[[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]'' who already possesses unity with the Father before the act of [[Incarnation]].<ref name=Waldrop >Charles T. Waldrop (1985). ''Karl Barth's christology'' {{ISBN|90-279-3109-7}} pp. 19–23</ref> In contrast, the [[Antiochian school]] viewed Christ as a single, unified human person apart from his relationship to the divine.<ref name=Waldrop />{{refn|group=note|The views of these schools can be summarized as follows:<ref name=Bromo50>''Historical Theology: An Introduction'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 2000 {{ISBN|0567223574}} pp. 50–51</ref>
* Alexandria: ''Logos'' assumes a general human nature;
* Antioch: ''Logos'' assumes a specific human being.}}

====Pre-existence====
The notion of pre-existence is deeply rooted in Jewish thought, and can be found in apocalyptic thought and among the rabbis of Paul's time,{{sfn|Grillmeier|Bowden|1975|p=15}} but Paul was most influenced by Jewish-Hellenistic wisdom literature, where {{"'}}Wisdom' is extolled as something existing before the world and already working in creation.{{sfn|Grillmeier|Bowden|1975|p=15}} According to Witherington, Paul "subscribed to the christological notion that Christ existed prior to taking on human flesh[,] founding the story of Christ{{nbsp}}[...] on the story of divine Wisdom".{{sfn|Witherington|2009|p=106}}{{refn|group=note|Witherington: "[Christ's Divinity] We have already seen that Paul, in appropriating the language of the christological hymns, subscribed to the christological notion that Christ existed prior to taking on human flesh. Paul spoke of Jesus both as the wisdom of God, his agent in creation (1 Cor 1:24, 30; 8:6; Col 1:15–17; see Bruce, 195), and as the one who accompanied Israel as the 'rock' in the wilderness (1 Cor 10:4). In view of the role Christ plays in 1 Corinthians 10:4, Paul is {{em|not}} founding the story of Christ on the archetypal story of Israel, but rather on the story of divine Wisdom, which helped Israel in the wilderness."{{sfn|Witherington|2009|p=106}}}}

====''Kyrios''====
The title ''[[Kyrios]]'' for Jesus is central to the development of [[New Testament]] Christology.<ref name="MiniJohnson"/> In the [[Septuagint]] it translates the [[Tetragrammaton]], the holy Name of God. As such, it closely links Jesus with God – in the same way a verse such as [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 28:19, "The Name (singular) of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit".<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|28:19|NIV}}</ref>

''Kyrios'' is also conjectured to be the Greek translation of [[Aramaic]] {{transliteration|arc|Mari}}, which in everyday Aramaic usage was a very respectful form of polite address, which means more than just 'teacher' and was somewhat similar to '[[rabbi]]'. While the term {{transliteration|arc|Mari}} expressed the relationship between Jesus and his disciples during his life, the Greek ''Kyrios'' came to represent his lordship over the world.<ref name="Cullmann2">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=79Zovlpi8uQC&dq=mari+aramaic+jesus&pg=PA202 |title=The Christology of the New Testament |date=1959-01-01 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-24351-7 |pages=202 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=8 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408105043/https://books.google.com/books?id=79Zovlpi8uQC&dq=mari+aramaic+jesus&pg=PA202 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Early Christianity|early Christians]] placed ''Kyrios'' at the center of their understanding, and from that center attempted to understand the other issues related to the Christian mysteries.<ref name="MiniJohnson">{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=Mini S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aa3yRbs0tisC&dq=Kyrios+christology&pg=PA231 |title=Christology: Biblical And Historical |date=2005-01-01 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-8324-007-9 |pages=229–235 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405041637/https://books.google.com/books?id=Aa3yRbs0tisC&dq=Kyrios+christology&pg=PA231 |url-status=live }}</ref> The question of the deity of Christ in the New Testament is inherently related to the ''Kyrios'' title of Jesus used in the early Christian writings and its implications for the absolute lordship of Jesus. In early Christian belief, the concept of ''Kyrios'' included the [[pre-existence of Christ]], for they believed if Christ is one with God, he must have been united with God from the very beginning.<ref name=MiniJohnson /><ref name="Cullmann">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=79Zovlpi8uQC&dq=Kyrios&pg=PA234 |title=The Christology of the New Testament |date=1959-01-01 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-24351-7 |pages=234–237 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164811/https://books.google.com/books?id=79Zovlpi8uQC&dq=Kyrios&pg=PA234 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Development of "low Christology" and "high Christology"===
{{Main|Exaltation of Jesus}}

Two fundamentally different Christologies developed in the early Church, namely a "low" or [[Adoptionism|adoptionist]] Christology, and a "high" or "incarnation" Christology.{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=125}} The chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within contemporary scholarship.{{sfn|Loke|2017}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2014}}{{sfn|Talbert|2011|p=3-6}}<ref group=web name="Hurtado.2017"/>

The "low Christology" or "adoptionist Christology" is the belief "that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead",{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|pp=120; 122}} thereby raising him to "divine status".<ref group=web name=BE_2013.02.14>{{cite web|last1=Ehrman|first1=Bart D.|author-link1=Bart D. Ehrman|title=Incarnation Christology, Angels, and Paul|url=https://ehrmanblog.org/incarnation-christology-angels-and-paul-for-members/|website=The Bart Ehrman Blog|access-date=2 May 2018|date=14 February 2013|archive-date=22 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422062124/https://ehrmanblog.org/incarnation-christology-angels-and-paul-for-members/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the "evolutionary model"{{sfn|Netland|2001|p=175}} or evolutionary theories,{{sfn|Loke|2017|p=3}} the Christological understanding of Jesus developed over time,{{sfn|Mack|1995}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2003}}<ref name="Ehrman_HJBG_CG">Bart Ehrman, ''How Jesus became God'', Course Guide</ref> as witnessed in the Gospels,{{sfn|Ehrman|2014}} with the earliest Christians believing that Jesus was a human who was exalted, or else adopted as God's Son,{{sfn|Loke|2017|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Talbert|2011|p=3}} when he was resurrected.<ref name="Ehrman_HJBG_CG"/><ref>Geza Vermez (2008), ''The Resurrection'', pp. 138–139</ref> Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his pre-existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John.<ref name="Ehrman_HJBG_CG"/> This "evolutionary model" was proposed by proponents of the {{lang|de|Religionsgeschichtliche Schule}}, especially [[Wilhelm Bousset]]'s influential ''Kyrios Christos'' (1913).{{sfn|Loke|2017|pp=3–4}} This evolutionary model was very influential, and the "low Christology" has long been regarded as the oldest Christology.{{sfn|Bird|2017|pp=ix, xi}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=132}}<ref group=web name=BE_2013.02.14/>{{refn|group=note|Ehrman:
* "The earliest Christians held exaltation Christologies in which the human being Jesus was made the Son of God{{snd}}for example, at his resurrection or at his baptism{{snd}}as we examined in the previous chapter."{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=132}}
* "Here I'll say something about the oldest Christology, as I understand it. This was what I earlier called a 'low' Christology. I may end up in the book describing it as a 'Christology from below' or possibly an 'exaltation' Christology. Or maybe I'll call it all three things{{nbsp}}[...] Along with lots of other scholars, I think this was indeed the earliest Christology."<ref group=web>[Bart Ehrman (6 February 2013), [https://ehrmanblog.org/the-earliest-christology-for-members/ "The Earliest Christology"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228191856/https://ehrmanblog.org/the-earliest-christology-for-members/ |date=28 February 2019 }}</ref>}}

The other early Christology is "high Christology", which is "the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father's will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come",<ref group=web name=BE_2013.02.14/>{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=122}} and from where he [[Christophany|appeared on earth]].{{refn|group=note|name="Christophany"}} According to Bousset, this "high Christology" developed at the time of Paul's writing, under the influence of Gentile Christians, who brought their pagan Hellenistic traditions to the early Christian communities, introducing divine honours to Jesus.{{sfn|Loke|2017|p=4}} According to Casey and Dunn, this "high Christology" developed after the time of Paul, at the end of the first century CE when the [[Gospel of John]] was written.{{sfn|Loke|2017|pp=4–5}}

Since the 1970s, these late datings for the development of a "high Christology" have been contested,{{sfn|Loke|2017|p=5}} and a majority of scholars argue that this "high Christology" existed already before the writings of Paul.{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=125}}{{refn|group=note|Richard Bauckham argues that Paul was not so influential that he could have invented the central doctrine of Christianity. Before his active missionary work, there were already groups of Christians across the region. For example, a large group already existed in Rome even before Paul visited the place. The earliest centre of Christianity was the twelve apostles in Jerusalem. Paul himself consulted and sought guidance from the Christian leaders in Jerusalem (Galatians 2:1–2;<ref>{{bibleverse|Galatians|2:1–2}}</ref> Acts 9:26–28,<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|9:26–28}}</ref> 15:2).<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|15:2}}</ref> "What was common to the whole Christian movement derived from Jerusalem, not from Paul, and Paul himself derived the central message he preached from the Jerusalem apostles."{{sfn|Bauckham|2011|pp=110–111}}}} According to the "New {{lang|de|Religionsgeschichtliche Schule}}",{{sfn|Loke|2017|p=5}}<ref group="web">{{Cite web |date=2015-07-10 |title="Early High Christology": A "Paradigm Shift"? "New Perspective"? |url=https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2015/07/10/early-high-christology-a-paradigm-shift-new-perspective/ |access-date=2023-05-10 |website=Larry Hurtado's Blog |language=en |archive-date=1 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301140350/https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2015/07/10/early-high-christology-a-paradigm-shift-new-perspective/ |url-status=live }}</ref> or the Early High Christology Club,<ref group=web name="Bouma.2014"/> which includes [[Martin Hengel]], [[Larry Hurtado]], [[N. T. Wright]], and [[Richard Bauckham]],{{sfn|Loke|2017|p=5}}<ref group=web name="Bouma.2014"/> this "incarnation Christology" or "high Christology" did not evolve over a longer time, but was a "big bang" of ideas which were already present at the start of Christianity, and took further shape in the first few decades of the church, as witnessed in the writings of Paul.{{sfn|Loke|2017|p=5}}<ref group=web name="Bouma.2014">{{cite web|last=Bouma|first=Jeremy|title=The Early High Christology Club and Bart Ehrman – An Excerpt from 'How God Became Jesus'|url=https://zondervanacademic.com/blog/how-god-became-jesus-bart-ehrman-high-christology-excerpt/|website=Zondervan Academic Blog|publisher=[[HarperCollins]] Christian Publishing|access-date=2 May 2018|date=27 March 2014|archive-date=21 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180421232807/https://zondervanacademic.com/blog/how-god-became-jesus-bart-ehrman-high-christology-excerpt/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref group=web name=BE_2013.02.14/>{{refn|group=note|name="Loke2017"|Loke (2017): "The last group of theories can be called 'Explosion Theories' (one might also call this 'the Big-Bang theory of Christology'!). This proposes that highest Christology {{em|was}} the view of the primitive Palestinian Christian community. The recognition of Jesus as truly divine was not a significant development from the views of the primitive Palestine community; rather, it 'exploded' right at the beginning of Christianity. The proponents of the Explosion view would say that the highest Christology of the later New Testament writings (e.g. Gospel of John) and the creedal formulations of the early church fathers, with their explicit affirmations of the pre-existence and ontological divinity of Christ, are not so much a development in essence but a development in understanding and explication of what was already there at the beginning of the Christian movement. As Bauckham (2008a, x) memorably puts it, 'The earliest Christology was already the highest Christology.' Many proponents of this group of theories have been labelled together as 'the New {{lang|de|Religionsgeschichtliche Schule}}' (Hurtado 2003, 11), and they include such eminent scholars as [[Richard Bauckham]], [[Larry Hurtado]], [[N. T. Wright]] and the late [[Martin Hengel]]."{{sfn|Loke|2017|p=5}}}} Some 'Early High Christology' proponents scholars argue that this "high Christology" may go back to Jesus himself.{{sfn|Loke|2017|p=6}}<ref group="web" name="Hurtado.2017">{{Cite web |date=2017-10-09 |title=The Origin of "Divine Christology"? |url=https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2017/10/09/the-origin-of-divine-christology/ |access-date=2023-05-10 |website=Larry Hurtado's Blog |language=en |archive-date=27 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227182301/https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2017/10/09/the-origin-of-divine-christology/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

There is a controversy regarding whether Jesus himself claimed to be divine. In ''[[Honest to God]]'', then-[[Bishop of Woolwich]], [[John A. T. Robinson]], questioned the idea.<ref>Robinson, John A. T. (1963), ''Honest to God'', p. 72.</ref> [[John Hick]], writing in 1993, mentioned changes in New Testament studies, citing "broad agreement" that scholars do not today support the view that Jesus claimed to be God, quoting as examples [[Michael Ramsey]] (1980), [[C. F. D. Moule]] (1977), [[James Dunn (theologian)|James Dunn]] (1980), Brian Hebblethwaite (1985) and David Brown (1985).<ref>Hick, John, ''The Metaphor of God Incarnate'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=f-QMmFx8hwcC&pg=PA27 page 27] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214055528/https://books.google.com/books?id=f-QMmFx8hwcC&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=14 December 2023 }}. "A further point of broad agreement among New Testament scholars{{nbsp}}[...] is that the historical Jesus did not make the claim to deity that later Christian thought was to make for him: he did not understand himself to be God, or God the Son, incarnate.{{nbsp}}[...] such evidence as there is has led the historians of the period to conclude, with an impressive degree of unanimity, that Jesus did not claim to be God incarnate."</ref> [[Larry Hurtado]], who argues that the followers of Jesus within a very short period developed an exceedingly high level of devotional reverence to Jesus,<ref>{{Cite book | last=Hurtado | first=Larry W. | title=How on earth did Jesus become a god?: historical questions about earliest devotion to Jesus | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi5xIxgnNgcC&pg=PA4 | year=2005 | publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company | location=Grand Rapids, Michigan | isbn=0-8028-2861-2 | pages=4–6 | access-date=16 October 2020 | archive-date=14 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214055528/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi5xIxgnNgcC&pg=PA4#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status=live }}</ref> at the same time rejects the view that Jesus made a claim to messiahship or divinity to his disciples during his life as "naive and ahistorical".{{Failed verification|date=November 2020}} According to [[Gerd Lüdemann]], the broad consensus among modern New Testament scholars is that the proclamation of the divinity of Jesus was a development within the earliest Christian communities.<ref name=gerd>[[Gerd Lüdemann]], [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~gluedem/download/pope_review.pdf "An Embarrassing Misrepresentation"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324064642/http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~gluedem/download/pope_review.pdf |date=24 March 2019 }}, ''[[Free Inquiry]]'', October / November 2007: "the broad consensus of modern New Testament scholars that the proclamation of Jesus's exalted nature was in large measure the creation of the earliest Christian communities."</ref> [[N. T. Wright]] points out that arguments over the claims of Jesus regarding divinity have been passed over by more recent scholarship, which sees a more complex understanding of the idea of God in first century Judaism.<ref name=Wright1999>{{Cite book| last = Wright| first = N. T.| year = 1999| title = The challenge of Jesus : rediscovering who Jesus was and is| page = 98| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hice2guxStoC&pg=PA98| isbn = 0-8308-2200-3| publisher = InterVarsity Press| location = Downers Grove, Illinois| access-date = 16 October 2020| archive-date = 14 December 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231214055528/https://books.google.com/books?id=hice2guxStoC&pg=PA98| url-status = live}}</ref> However, Andrew Loke argues that if Jesus did not claim and show himself to be truly divine and rise from the dead, the earliest Christian leaders who were devout ancient monotheistic Jews would have regarded Jesus as merely a teacher or a prophet; they would not have come to the widespread agreement that he was truly divine, which they did.<ref>Andrew Ter Ern Loke, ''The Origin of Divine Christology'' (Cambridge University Press, 2017), pp. 100–135</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://ethosinstitute.sg/is-jesus-god/ |title=Is Jesus God? A Historical Evaluation Concerning the Deity of Christ |last=Loke |first=Andrew |website=Ethos Institute |date=18 February 2019 |access-date=September 8, 2022 |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908110417/https://ethosinstitute.sg/is-jesus-god/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===New Testament writings===
The study of the various Christologies of the [[Apostolic Age]] is based on early Christian documents.{{sfn|O'Collins|2009|pp=1–3}}

====Paul====
[[File:V&A - Raphael, St Paul Preaching in Athens (1515).jpg|thumb|[[Saint Paul]] delivering the ''[[Areopagus sermon]]'' in [[Athens]], by [[Raphael]], 1515]]
The oldest Christian sources are the writings of [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]].{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=113}} The central Christology of Paul conveys the notion of Christ's pre-existence{{sfn|Grillmeier|Bowden|1975|p=15}}{{sfn|Witherington|2009|p=106}} and the identification of Christ as ''[[Kyrios (Biblical term)|Kyrios]]''.{{sfn|Grillmeier|Bowden|1975|pp=15–19}} Both notions already existed before him in the early Christian communities, and Paul deepened them and used them for preaching in the Hellenistic communities.{{sfn|Grillmeier|Bowden|1975|p=15}}

What exactly Paul believed about the nature of Jesus cannot be determined decisively. In [[Philippians 2]], Paul states that Jesus was preexistent and came to Earth "by taking the form of a servant, being made in human likeness". This sounds like an [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnation]] Christology. In Romans 1:4, however, Paul states that Jesus "was declared with power to be the Son of God by his resurrection from the dead", which sounds like an [[Adoptionism|adoptionistic]] Christology, where Jesus was a human being who was "adopted" after his death. Different views would be debated for centuries by Christians and finally settled on the idea that he was both fully human and fully divine by the middle of the 5th century in the [[Council of Ephesus]]. Paul's thoughts on Jesus' teachings, versus his nature and being, are more defined, in that Paul believed Jesus was sent as an [[atonement]] for the sins of everyone.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Paul and Palestinian Judaism|last = Sanders|first = E. P. |publisher = Fortress Press|year = 1977 |isbn = 978-0-8006-1899-5|location = Minneapolis}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dunn |first=James D. G. |author-link=James Dunn (theologian) |title=Jesus, Paul, and the Law: Studies in Mark and Galatians |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |location=Louisville, Kentucky |year=1990 |isbn=0-664-25095-5 |pages=1–7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d76vmNlbuBwC&pg=PA1 |access-date=15 May 2020 |archive-date=14 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214055552/https://books.google.com/books?id=d76vmNlbuBwC&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Britannica">{{cite web |first1=E. P. |last1=Sanders |title=St. Paul the Apostle – Theological views |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle/Theological-views |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=15 May 2020 |language=en |archive-date=26 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026040558/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle/Theological-views |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Pauline epistles]] use ''Kyrios'' to identify Jesus almost 230 times, and express the theme that the true mark of a Christian is the confession of Jesus as the true Lord.{{sfn|O'Collins|2009|p=142}} Paul viewed the superiority of the Christian revelation over all other divine manifestations as a consequence of the fact that Christ is the [[Son of God]].<ref group=web name="CathEncycl_Christology" />

The Pauline epistles also advanced the "[[cosmic Christ]]ology"{{refn|group=note|The concept of "cosmic Christology", first elaborated by [[Saint Paul]], focuses on how the arrival of Jesus as the [[Son of God]] forever changed the nature of the [[cosmos]].{{sfn|Grillmeier|Bowden|1975|pp=15–19}}<ref name="Jesus page 282">Larry R. Helyer (2008). ''The Witness of Jesus, Paul and John: An Exploration in Biblical Theology''. {{ISBN|0-8308-2888-5}} p. 282</ref>}} later developed in the Gospel of John,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Enslin|first1=Morton S.|title=John and Jesus|journal=[[Zeitschrift für die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft|ZNW]]|date=1975|volume=66|issue=1–2|pages=1–18|doi=10.1515/zntw.1975.66.1-2.1|s2cid=162364599|issn=1613-009X|quote=[Per the Gospel of John] No longer is John [the Baptizer] an independent preacher. He is but a voice, or, to change the figure, a finger pointing to Jesus. The baptism story is not told, although it is referred to (John 1:32f). But the baptism of Jesus is deprived of any significance for Jesus – not surprising since the latter has just been introduced as the preexistent Christ, who had been the effective agent responsible for the world's creation. (Enslin, p. 4)}}</ref> elaborating the cosmic implications of Jesus' existence as the Son of God: "Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation. The old has passed away; behold, the new has come."<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Corinthians|5:17|KJV}}</ref> Paul writes that Christ came to draw all back to God: "Through him God was pleased to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven" (Colossians 1:20);<ref>{{bibleverse|Colossians|1:20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zupez|first=John|date=2014|title=Celebrating God's Plan of Creation/Salvation|journal=Emmanuel|volume=120|pages=356–359}}</ref> in the same epistle, he writes that "He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation" (Colossians 1:15).<ref>{{bibleverse|Colossians|1:15|KJV}}</ref>{{sfn|Grillmeier|Bowden|1975|pp=15–19}}<ref name="Jesus page 282"/>

====The Gospels====
[[File:The Four Evangelists.jpg|thumb|left|''The [[Four Evangelists]]'', by [[Pieter Soutman]], 17th century]]

The [[synoptic Gospels]] date from after the writings of Paul. They provide episodes from the life of Jesus and some of his works, but the authors of the New Testament show little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life,<ref name=Rahner731 >[[Karl Rahner]] (2004). ''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' {{ISBN|0-86012-006-6}} p. 731</ref> and as in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#21:25|John 21:25]], the Gospels do not claim to be an exhaustive list of his works.{{sfn|O'Collins|2009|pp=1–3}}

Christologies that can be gleaned from the three [[Synoptic Gospels]] generally emphasize the humanity of Jesus, his sayings, his [[Parables of Jesus|parables]], and his [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]]. The [[Gospel of John]] provides a different perspective that focuses on his divinity.<ref group=web name="CathEncycl_Christology" /> The first 14 verses of the Gospel of John are devoted to the divinity of Jesus as the ''[[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]'', usually translated as "Word", along with his pre-existence, and they emphasize the cosmic significance of Christ, e.g.: "All things were made through him, and without him was not any thing made that was made."<ref>{{bibleverse|John|1:3|KJV}}</ref> In the context of these verses, the Word made flesh is identical with the Word who was in the beginning with God, being exegetically equated with Jesus.<ref group=web name="CathEncycl_Christology" />

==Controversies and ecumenical councils (2nd–8th century)==
{{Main|First seven ecumenical councils}}

===Post-Apostolic controversies===
Following the [[Apostolic Age]], from the second century onwards, a number of controversies developed about how the human and divine are related within the person of Jesus.{{sfn|Fahlbusch|1999|p=463}}{{sfn|Rausch|2003|p=149}} As of the second century, a number of different and opposing approaches developed among various groups. In contrast to prevailing [[monoprosopic]] views on the Person of Christ, alternative [[dyoprosopic]] notions were also promoted by some theologians, but such views were rejected by the [[ecumenical councils]]. For example, [[Arianism]] did not endorse divinity, [[Ebionism]] argued Jesus was an ordinary mortal, while [[Gnosticism]] held [[docetism|docetic]] views which argued Christ was a spiritual being who only appeared to have a physical body.{{sfn|Ehrman|1993}}{{sfn|McGrath|2007|p=282}} The resulting tensions led to [[schism (religion)|schism]]s within the church in the second and third centuries, and [[ecumenical councils]] were convened in the fourth and fifth centuries to deal with the issues.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Although some of the debates may seem to various modern students to be over a theological iota, they took place in controversial political circumstances, reflecting the relations of temporal powers and divine authority, and certainly resulted in schisms, among others that separated the [[Church of the East]] from the Church of the Roman Empire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Internet History Sourcebooks: Medieval Sourcebook |url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/ephesus.asp |access-date=2023-05-10 |website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu |at=Vol. XIV, p. 207 |archive-date=10 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230510235650/https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/ephesus.asp |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>The Seven Ecumenical Councils of the Undivided Church, trans H. R. Percival, in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd Series, ed. P. Schaff and H. Wace, (repr. Grand Rapids MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1955), XIV, pp. 192–142</ref>

===First Council of Nicaea (325) and First Council of Constantinople (381)===
In 325, the [[First Council of Nicaea]] defined the persons of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Godhead]] and their relationship with one another, decisions which were ratified at the [[First Council of Constantinople]] in 381. The language used was that the one God exists in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); in particular, it was affirmed that the Son was ''[[homoousios]]'' (of the same being) as the Father. The [[Nicene Creed]] declared the full divinity and full humanity of Jesus.<ref>Jonathan Kirsch, ''God Against the Gods: The History of the War Between Monotheism and Polytheism'' (2004)</ref><ref>Charles Freeman, ''The Closing of the Western Mind: The Rise of Faith and the Fall of Reason'' (2002)</ref><ref>[[Edward Gibbon]], ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' (1776–1788), p. 21</ref> After the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325 the ''Logos'' and the second Person of the [[Holy Trinity|Trinity]] were being used interchangeably.<ref>''A concise dictionary of theology'' by [[Gerald O'Collins]] 2004 {{ISBN|0-567-08354-3}} pp. 144–145</ref>

===First Council of Ephesus (431)===
In 431, the [[First Council of Ephesus]] was initially called to address the views of [[Nestorius]] on [[Mariology]], but the problems soon extended to Christology, and schisms followed. The 431 council was called because in defense of his loyal priest Anastasius, Nestorius had denied the ''[[Theotokos]]'' title for [[Virgin Mary|Mary]] and later contradicted [[Proclus]] during a sermon in [[Constantinople]]. Pope [[Celestine I]] (who was already upset with Nestorius due to other matters) wrote about this to [[Cyril of Alexandria]], who orchestrated the council. During the council, Nestorius defended his position by arguing there must be two persons of Christ, one human, the other divine, and Mary had given birth only to a human, hence could not be called the ''Theotokos'', i.e. "the one who gives birth to God". The debate about the single or dual nature of Christ ensued in Ephesus.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marthaler |first=Berard L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TY3-aZIo9HEC&dq=council+ephesus+nestorius+theotokos&pg=PA114 |title=The Creed: The Apostolic Faith in Contemporary Theology |date=1993 |publisher=Twenty-Third Publications |isbn=978-0-89622-537-4 |pages=114 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=14 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214055528/https://books.google.com/books?id=TY3-aZIo9HEC&dq=council+ephesus+nestorius+theotokos&pg=PA114#v=onepage&q=council%20ephesus%20nestorius%20theotokos&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=uDZaZJkkWgQC&dq=council+ephesus+nestorius+theotokos&pg=PA18| title = ''Mary and the Saints'' by James P. Campbell, 2005, pp. 17–20| isbn = 978-0829430301| last1 = Campbell| first1 = James P.| date = June 2010| publisher = Loyola Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=González |first=Justo L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DU6RNDrfd-0C&dq=council+ephesus+nestorius+theotokos&pg=PA120 |title=Essential Theological Terms |date=2005-01-01 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-22810-1 |pages=120 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hall |first=Stuart George |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TLyjrU3LPlUC&dq=council+ephesus+nestorius+theotokos&pg=PP7 |title=Doctrine and Practice in the Early Church |date=1992 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-0629-1 |pages=211–218 |language=en}}</ref>

The First Council of Ephesus debated [[miaphysitism]] (two natures united as one after the [[hypostatic union]]) versus [[dyophysitism]] (coexisting natures after the hypostatic union) versus [[monophysitism]] (only one nature) versus [[Nestorianism]] (two hypostases). From the Christological viewpoint, the council adopted {{transliteration|grc|Mia Physis}} ('but being made one', {{lang|grc|κατὰ φύσιν}}) – Council of Ephesus, Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius, i.e. 'one nature of the Word of God incarnate' ({{lang|grc|μία φύσις τοῦ θεοῦ λόγου σεσαρκωμένη}}, {{transliteration|grc|mía phýsis toû theoû lógou sesarkōménē}}). In 451, the Council of Chalcedon affirmed [[dyophysitism]]. The [[Oriental Orthodox]] rejected this and subsequent councils and continued to consider themselves as ''miaphysite'' according to the faith put forth at the Councils of [[First Council of Nicaea|Nicaea]] and [[Council of Ephesus|Ephesus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chafer |first=Lewis Sperry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFCoSSKTffcC&dq=Hypostatic+union&pg=PA382 |title=Systematic Theology |date=1993-01-01 |publisher=Kregel Academic |isbn=978-0-8254-2340-6 |pages=382–384 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=14 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214060056/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFCoSSKTffcC&dq=Hypostatic+union&pg=PA382 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="parry">{{Cite book |last=Parry |first=Ken |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fWp9JA3aBvcC&dq=Miaphysitism&pg=PA88 |title=The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity |date=2010-05-10 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-3361-9 |pages=88 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164816/https://books.google.com/books?id=fWp9JA3aBvcC&dq=Miaphysitism&pg=PA88 |url-status=live }}</ref> The council also confirmed the ''Theotokos'' title and excommunicated Nestorius.<ref name="KBaker">{{Cite book |last=Baker |first=Kenneth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yBW8l1opH-oC&dq=Hypostatic+union&pg=PA228 |title=Fundamentals of Catholicism: God, Trinity, Creation, Christ, Mary |date=1982 |publisher=Ignatius Press |isbn=978-0-89870-019-0 |pages=228–231 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=14 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214060149/https://books.google.com/books?id=yBW8l1opH-oC&dq=Hypostatic+union&pg=PA228#v=onepage&q=Hypostatic%20union&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Ephesus >''Mary, Mother of God'' by Carl E. Braaten and Robert W. Jenson 2004 {{ISBN|0802822665}} p. 84</ref>

===Council of Chalcedon (451)===
[[Image:Christological spectrum-o2p.svg|thumb|right|Christological spectrum during the 5th–7th centuries showing the views of the Church of the East (light blue), the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches (light purple), and the [[Miaphysite Churches]] (pink)]]

The 451 [[Council of Chalcedon]] was highly influential, and marked a key turning point in the christological debates.{{sfn|Price|Gaddis|2006|pp=1–5}} It is the last council which many [[Lutheran]]s, [[Anglican]]s and other [[Protestants]] consider ecumenical.<ref name="Olson1999">{{cite book |last1=Olson |first1=Roger E. |title=The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition Reform |date= 1999 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-1505-0 |page=158 |language=English}}</ref>{{sfn|Armentrout|Boak Slocum|2005|p=81}}

The Council of Chalcedon fully promulgated the Western [[Dyophysitism|dyophysite]] understanding put forth by [[Pope Leo I]] of Rome of the ''[[hypostatic union]]'', the proposition that Christ has one human nature ''([[physis]])'' and one divine nature ''(physis)'', each distinct and complete, and united with neither confusion nor division.{{sfn|Fahlbusch|1999|p=463}}{{sfn|Rausch|2003|p=149}} Most of the major branches of Western Christianity ([[Roman Catholicism]], [[Anglicanism]], [[Lutheranism]], and [[Calvinism|Reformed]]), [[Church of the East]],{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|pp=287–289}} [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholicism]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] subscribe to the Chalcedonian Christological formulation, while many branches of [[Oriental Orthodox Churches]] ([[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syrian Orthodoxy]], [[Coptic Orthodoxy]], [[Ethiopian Orthodox]]y, and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Apostolicism]]) reject it.{{sfn|Armentrout|Boak Slocum|2005|p=81}}{{sfn|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|p=217}}{{sfn|Beversluis|2000|pp=21–22}}

Although the [[Chalcedonian Creed]] did not put an end to all christological debate, it did clarify the terms used and became a point of reference for many future Christologies.{{sfn|Armentrout|Boak Slocum|2005|p=81}}{{sfn|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|p=217}}{{sfn|Beversluis|2000|pp=21–22}} But it also broke apart the church of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] in the fifth century,{{sfn|Price|Gaddis|2006|pp=1–5}} and unquestionably established the primacy of Rome in the East over those who accepted the Council of Chalcedon. This was reaffirmed in 519, when the Eastern Chalcedonians accepted the [[Pope Hormisdas|Formula of Hormisdas]], anathematizing all of their own Eastern Chalcedonian hierarchy, who died out of communion with Rome from 482 to 519.

===Fifth–Seventh Ecumenical Council (553, 681, 787)===
The [[Second Council of Constantinople]] in 553 interpreted the decrees of Chalcedon, and further explained the relationship of the two natures of Jesus. It also condemned the alleged teachings of [[Origen]] on the pre-existence of the soul, and other topics.<ref group=web>{{cite web|url=http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8068|title=The Fifth Ecumenical Council – Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America|access-date=5 March 2015|archive-date=26 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326234328/http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8068|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Third Council of Constantinople]] in 681 declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of the [[Monothelites]],<ref group=web>{{cite web|url=http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8069|title=The Sixth Ecumenical Council – Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America|access-date=5 March 2015|archive-date=26 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326234332/http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8069|url-status=live}}</ref> with the divine will having precedence, leading and guiding the human will.<ref>''The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology'' by Alan Richardson and John Bowden (1983) {{ISBN|0664227481}} p. 169</ref>

The [[Second Council of Nicaea]] was called under the Empress Regent [[Irene of Athens]] in 787, known as the second of Nicaea. It supports the [[veneration]] of [[icon]]s while forbidding their worship. It is often referred to as "The Triumph of Orthodoxy".<ref group=web>{{cite web|url=http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8071|title=The Seventh Ecumenical Council – Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America|access-date=5 March 2015|archive-date=24 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324035845/http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8071|url-status=live}}</ref>

==9th–11th century==
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

==Eastern Christianity==
{{Main|East–West Schism|Eastern Orthodox Church}}
{{empty section|date=March 2019}}

==Western medieval Christology==
The [[Franciscan]] piety of the 12th and 13th centuries led to "popular Christology". Systematic approaches by theologians, such as [[Thomas Aquinas]], are called "scholastic Christology".<ref name="mini7">{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=Mini S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aa3yRbs0tisC&dq=christology+franciscan&pg=PA74 |title=Christology: Biblical And Historical |date=2005-01-01 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-8324-007-9 |pages=74–76 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=14 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214060058/https://books.google.com/books?id=Aa3yRbs0tisC&dq=christology+franciscan&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q=christology%20franciscan&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the [[Christianity in the 13th century|13th century]], [[Thomas Aquinas]] provided the first systematic Christology that consistently resolved a number of the existing issues.<ref name="GilsonC">{{Citation|last= Gilson|first= Etienne|title= The Christian Philosophy of Saint Thomas Aquinas|year= 1994|publisher= University of Notre Dame Press|location= Notre Dame, IN|isbn= 978-0-268-00801-7|page= 502}}</ref> In his Christology from above, Aquinas also championed the [[Perfection of Christ|principle of perfection of Christ]]'s human attributes.<ref name="mini76">{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=Mini S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aa3yRbs0tisC&dq=Christology+aquinas&pg=PA75 |title=Christology: Biblical And Historical |date=2005-01-01 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-8324-007-9 |pages=76–79 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=14 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214060058/https://books.google.com/books?id=Aa3yRbs0tisC&dq=Christology+aquinas&pg=PA75#v=onepage&q=Christology%20aquinas&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|O'Collins|2009|p=208–12}}<ref name="Geest">{{Cite book |last=Goris |first=Harm J. M. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Svfrp2LSlkEC&dq=Christology+aquinas&pg=PA27 |title=Aquinas as Authority: A Collection of Studies Presented at the Second Conference of the Thomas Insituut Te Utrecht, December 14-16, 2000 |date=2002 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |isbn=978-90-429-1074-4 |pages=25–35 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=14 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214060058/https://books.google.com/books?id=Svfrp2LSlkEC&dq=Christology+aquinas&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q=Christology%20aquinas&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Middle Ages]] also witnessed the emergence of the "tender image of Jesus" as a friend and a living source of love and comfort, rather than just the ''Kyrios'' image.<ref name=Astley >''Christology: Key Readings in Christian Thought'' by Jeff Astley, David Brown, [[Ann Loades]] 2009 {{ISBN|0-664-23269-8}} p. 106</ref>

==Reformation==
[[John Calvin]] maintained there was no human element in the Person of Christ which could be separated from the Person of [[Logos (Christianity)|The Word]].<ref>''Calvin's Christology'' by Stephen Edmondson 2004 {{ISBN|0-521-54154-9}} p. 217</ref> Calvin also emphasized the importance of the "Work of Christ" in any attempt at understanding the Person of Christ and cautioned against ignoring the Works of Jesus during his ministry.<ref>''Calvin's First Catechism'' by I. John Hesselink 1997 {{ISBN|0-664-22725-2}} p. 217</ref>

==Modern developments==
{{See also|Historical Jesus|Quest for the Historical Jesus}}

===Liberal Protestant theology===
The 19th century saw the rise of [[Liberal Protestant]] theology, which questioned the dogmatic foundations of Christianity, and approached the Bible with critical-historical tools.<ref group="web" name="EB.Christology.mCt">{{Cite web |title=Jesus - The debate over Christology in modern Christian thought {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/The-debate-over-Christology-in-modern-Christian-thought |access-date=2023-05-10 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=6 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406093555/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/The-debate-over-Christology-in-modern-Christian-thought |url-status=live }}</ref> The divinity of Jesus was problematized, and replaced with an emphasis on the ethical aspects of his teachings.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=ch. 4}}{{refn|group=note|Gerald O'Collins and Daniel Kendall have called this Liberal Protestant theology "neo-[[Arianism]]."{{sfn|O'Collins|Kendall|1996|pp=30–31}}}}

===Roman Catholicism===
[[Catholic]] theologian [[Karl Rahner]] sees the purpose of modern Christology as to formulate the Christian belief that "God became man and that God-made-man is the individual Jesus Christ" in a manner that this statement can be understood consistently, without the confusions of past debates and mythologies.{{sfn|Rahner|2004|pp=755–767}}{{refn|group=note|Grillmeier: "The most urgent task of a contemporary Christology is to formulate the Church's dogma – 'God became man and that God-made-man is the individual Jesus Christ' – in such a way that the true meaning of these statements can be understood, and all trace of a mythology impossible to accept nowadays is excluded."{{sfn|Grillmeier|1975|p=755}}}} Rahner pointed out the coincidence between the Person of Christ and the Word of God, referring to [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#8:38|Mark 8:38]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#9:26|Luke 9:26]] which state whoever is ashamed of the words of Jesus is ashamed of the Lord himself.<ref>''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by Karl Rahner 2004 {{ISBN|0-86012-006-6}} p. 1822</ref>

[[Hans Urs von Balthasar|Hans von Balthasar]] argued the union of the human and divine natures of Christ was achieved not by the "absorption" of human attributes, but by their "assumption". Thus, in his view, the divine nature of Christ was not affected by the human attributes and remained forever divine.<ref>''The eschatology of Hans Urs von Balthasar'' by Nicholas J. Healy 2005 {{ISBN|0-19-927836-9}} pp. 22–23</ref>

==Topics==

===Nativity and the Holy Name===
{{See also|Nativity of Jesus|Holy Name of Jesus}}

The [[Nativity of Jesus]] impacted the Christological issues about his person from the earliest days of Christianity. Luke's Christology centers on the dialectics of the dual natures of the earthly and heavenly manifestations of existence of the Christ, while Matthew's Christology focuses on the mission of Jesus and his role as the savior.<ref>''Theology of the New Testament'' by Georg Strecker 2000 {{ISBN|0-664-22336-2}} pp. 401–403</ref><ref>''Matthew'' by [[Grant R. Osborne]] 2010 {{ISBN|0-310-32370-3}} p. lxxix</ref> The [[Christian soteriology|salvific]] emphasis of [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#1:21|Matthew 1:21]] later impacted the theological issues and the devotions to [[Holy Name of Jesus]].<ref>''Matthew 1–13'' by Manlio Simonetti 2001 {{ISBN|0-8308-1486-8}} p. 17</ref><ref>''Matthew 1-2/ Luke 1–2'' by Louise Perrotta 2004 {{ISBN|0-8294-1541-6}} p. 19</ref><ref>''All the Doctrines of the Bible'' by Herbert Lockyer 1988 {{ISBN|0-310-28051-6}} p. 159</ref>

[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#1:23|Matthew 1:23]] provides a key to the "Emmanuel Christology" of Matthew. Beginning with 1:23, the Gospel of Matthew shows a clear interest in identifying Jesus as "God with us" and in later developing the Emmanuel characterization of Jesus at key points throughout the rest of the Gospel.<ref name=Kupp >''Matthew's Emmanuel'' by David D. Kupp 1997 {{ISBN|0-521-57007-7}} pp. 220–224</ref> The name 'Emmanuel' does not appear elsewhere in the New Testament, but Matthew builds on it in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#28:20|Matthew 28:20]] ("I am with you always, even unto the end of the world") to indicate Jesus will be with the faithful to the end of the age.<ref name=Kupp /><ref name=Kingsbury17 >''Who do you say that I am?: essays on Christology'' by Jack Dean Kingsbury, Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer 1999 {{ISBN|0-664-25752-6}} p. 17</ref> According to [[Ulrich Luz]], the Emmanuel motif brackets the entire Gospel of Matthew between 1:23 and 28:20, appearing explicitly and implicitly in several other passages.<ref>''The theology of the Gospel of Matthew'' by Ulrich Luz 1995 {{ISBN|0-521-43576-5}} p. 31</ref>

===Crucifixion and resurrection===
{{Main|Crucifixion of Jesus|Resurrection of Jesus}}
The accounts of the crucifixion and subsequent [[resurrection of Jesus]] provides a rich background for christological analysis, from the canonical Gospels to the [[Pauline Epistles]].<ref>''Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology'' by Jack Dean Kingsbury, Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer 1999 {{ISBN|0-664-25752-6}} p. 106</ref>

A central element in the christology presented in the [[Acts of the Apostles]] is the affirmation of the belief that the death of Jesus by crucifixion happened "with the foreknowledge of God, according to a definite plan".<ref name=Matera67>''New Testament christology'' by Frank J. Matera 1999 {{ISBN|0-664-25694-5}} p. 67</ref> In this view, as in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#2:23|Acts 2:23]], the cross is not viewed as a scandal, for the crucifixion of Jesus "at the hands of the lawless" is viewed as the fulfilment of the plan of God.<ref name=Matera67 /><ref>''The speeches in Acts: their content, context, and concerns'' by Marion L. Soards 1994 {{ISBN|0-664-25221-4}} p. 34</ref>

Paul's Christology has a specific focus on the death and resurrection of Jesus. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his resurrection and the term "the cross of Christ" used in Galatians 6:12 may be viewed as his abbreviation of the message of the Gospels.<ref name=Schwarz132 >''Christology'' by Hans Schwarz 1998 {{ISBN|0-8028-4463-4}} pp 132–134</ref> For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated event in history, but a cosmic event with significant [[eschatological]] consequences, as in 1 Corinthians 2:8.<ref name=Schwarz132 /> In the Pauline view, Jesus, obedient to the point of death (Philippians 2:8), died "at the right time" (Romans 5:6) based on the plan of God.<ref name=Schwarz132 /> For Paul, the "power of the cross" is not separable from the resurrection of Jesus.<ref name=Schwarz132 />

===Threefold office===
{{Main|Threefold office}}

The [[threefold office]] (Latin {{lang|la|munus triplex}}) of Jesus Christ is a [[Christianity|Christian]] doctrine based upon the teachings of the Old Testament. It was described by [[Eusebius]] and more fully developed by [[John Calvin]]. It states that Jesus [[Christ]] performed three functions (or "offices") in his earthly ministry – those of [[prophet]], [[priest]], and [[kingly office of Christ|king]]. In the Old Testament, the appointment of someone to any of these three positions could be indicated by anointing him or her by pouring oil over the head. Thus, the term ''messiah'', meaning "anointed one", is associated with the concept of the threefold office. While the office of king is that most frequently associated with the Messiah, the role of Jesus as priest is also prominent in the New Testament, being most fully explained in chapters 7 to 10 of the [[Book of Hebrews]].

===Mariology===
{{main|Mariology|Roman Catholic Mariology}}
Some Christians, notably [[Roman Catholics]], view Mariology as a key component of Christology.<ref group="web">"Mariology Is Christology", in [[Vittorio Messori]], ''The Mary Hypothesis'', Rome: 2005. [http://www.zenit.org/article-14658?l=english] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080805194304/http://www.zenit.org/article-14658?l=english|date=5 August 2008}}</ref> In this view, not only is Mariology a logical and necessary consequence of Christology, but without it, Christology is incomplete, since the figure of Mary contributes to a fuller understanding of who Christ is and what he did.<ref>Paul Haffner, 2004 ''The mystery of Mary'' Gracewing Press {{ISBN|0-85244-650-0}} p. 17</ref>

Protestants have criticized Mariology because many of its assertions lack any Biblical foundation.<ref>Walter A. Elwell, ''Evangelical Dictionary of Theology'', Second Edition (Grand Rapids, Michigan, United States: Baker Academic, 2001), p. 736.</ref> Strong Protestant reaction against Roman Catholic Marian devotion and teaching has been a significant issue for [[Ecumenism|ecumenical]] dialogue.<ref>Erwin Fahlbusch et al., "Mariology", The Encyclopedia of Christianity (Grand Rapids, Michigan, United States; Leiden, Netherlands: Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999–2003), p. 409.</ref>

[[Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger]] (later [[Pope Benedict XVI]]) expressed this sentiment about Roman Catholic Mariology when in two separate occasions he stated, "The appearance of a truly Marian awareness serves as the touchstone indicating whether or not the christological substance is fully present"<ref>[[Communio]], 1996, Volume 23, p. 175</ref> and "It is necessary to go back to Mary, if we want to return to the truth about Jesus Christ."<ref>Raymond Burke, 2008 ''Mariology: A Guide for Priests, Deacons, seminarians, and Consecrated Persons'' {{ISBN|1-57918-355-7}} p. xxi</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col}}
* [[Catholic spirituality]]
* [[Christian messianic prophecies]]
* [[Christian views of Jesus]]
* [[Christological argument]]
* [[Crucifixion of Jesus]]
* [[Doubting Thomas]]
* [[Eucharist]]
* [[Eutychianism]]
* [[Five Holy Wounds]]
* [[Genealogy of Jesus]]
* [[Great Church]]
* [[Great Tribulation]]
* [[Harrowing of Hell]]
* [[Kingship and Kingdom of God]]
* [[Last Judgement]]
* [[Life of Jesus in the New Testament]]
* [[Miracles of Jesus]]
* [[Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament]]
* [[Religious perspectives on Jesus]]
* [[Paterology]]
* [[Pneumatology]]
* [[Rapture]]
* [[Scholastic Lutheran Christology]]
* [[Second Coming of Christ]]
* [[Transfiguration of Jesus]]
* [[Universal resurrection]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note|2|refs=

{{refn|group=note|name="Christophany"|Proponents of Christ's deity argue the [[Old Testament]] has many cases of [[Christophany]]: "The pre-existence of Christ is further substantiated by the many recorded Christophanies in the Bible."<ref>''Theology for Today'' by [[Elmer Towns|Elmer L. Towns]] 2008 {{ISBN|0-15-516138-5}} p. 173</ref> "Christophany" is often{{quantify|date=May 2016}} considered a more accurate term than the term "[[theophany]]" due to the belief that all the visible manifestations of God are in fact the preincarnate Christ. Many argue that the appearances of "[[Angel of the Lord|the Angel of the Lord]]" in the Old Testament were the preincarnate Christ. "Many understand the angel of the Lord as a true theophany. From the time of [[Justin Martyr|Justin]] on, the figure has been regarded as the preincarnate [[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]."<ref>"[[Angel of the Lord]]" by T. E. McComiskey in ''The Evangelical Dictionary of Theology'' 2001 {{ISBN|0-8010-2075-1}} p. 62</ref>}}
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
;Printed sources
{{Refbegin|35em}}

* {{Citation | last1 =Armentrout | first1 =Donald S. | last2 =Boak Slocum | first2 = Robert | year =2005 | title =An Episcopal dictionary of the church | publisher =Church Publishing | isbn =978-0-89869-211-2}}

* {{cite book |last1=Baker |first1=Mark D. |title=Proclaiming the Scandal of the Cross: Contemporary Images of the Atonement |date= 2006 |publisher=Baker Academic |isbn=978-1-4412-0627-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AXont-aAtfoC&pg=PA25 |language=en |access-date=20 November 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164814/https://books.google.com/books?id=AXont-aAtfoC&pg=PA25 |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation | last =Bauckham | first =R. | year =2011 | title =Jesus: A Very Short Introduction | publisher =Oxford University Press}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Beilby | first1 =James K. | last2 =Eddy | first2 =Paul R. | year =2009 | title =The Nature of the Atonement: Four Views | publisher =InterVarsity Press}}
* {{Cite journal |author-last=Bermejo-Rubio |author-first=Fernando |year=2017 |title=The Process of Jesus' Deification and Cognitive Dissonance Theory |editor1-last=Feldt |editor1-first=Laura |editor2-last=Valk |editor2-first=Ülo |journal=[[Numen (journal)|Numen]] |volume=64 |issue=2–3 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |location=[[Leiden]] |pages=119–152 |doi=10.1163/15685276-12341457 |eissn=1568-5276 |issn=0029-5973 |jstor=44505332 |s2cid=148616605}}
* {{Citation | last =Beversluis | first =Joel Diederik | year =2000 | title =Sourcebook of the world's religions | publisher =New World Library | isbn =978-1-57731-121-8 | url =https://archive.org/details/sourcebookofworl00beve }}
* {{Citation | last1 =Bird | first1 =Michael F. | last2 =Evans | first2 =Craig A. | last3 =Gathercole | first3 =Simon | year =2014 | title =How God Became Jesus: The Real Origins of Belief in Jesus' Divine Nature – A Response to Bart Ehrman | chapter =Endnotes – Chapter 1 | publisher =Zondervan | isbn =978-0-310-51961-4 | chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=JGy2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT134 }}
* {{Citation | last =Bird | first =Michael F. | year =2017 | title =Jesus the Eternal Son: Answering Adoptionist Christology | publisher =Wim. B. Eerdmans Publishing | url =https://archive.org/details/jesuseternalsona0000bird }}
* {{Citation | last =Brown | first =Raymond Edward | year =2004 | title =An Introduction to New Testament Christology | publisher =Paulist Press}}

*Chilton, Bruce. "The Son of Man: Who Was He?” ''Bible Review.'' August 1996, 35+.
*[[Oscar Cullmann|Cullmann, Oscar]] (1980). ''[https://archive.org/details/christologyofnew0000unse_t0v7 The Christology of the New Testament]''. trans. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. {{ISBN|0-664-24351-7}}

* {{Citation | last =Davis | first =Leo Donald | year =1990 | title =The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325–787): Their History and Theology (Theology and Life Series 21) | publisher =Michael Glazier/Liturgical Press | location =Collegeville, MN | isbn =978-0-8146-5616-7 | url-access =registration | url =https://archive.org/details/firstsevenec_davi_1990_000_6702418 }}
* {{Citation | last =Dunn | first =James D. G.| author-link =James Dunn (theologian) | year =2003 | title =Jesus Remembered: Christianity in the Making | publisher =Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing | isbn =978-0-8028-3931-2}}

* {{Citation | last =Ehrman | first =Bart D. | year =1993 | title =The Orthodox corruption of scripture: the effect of early Christological controversies on the text of the New Testament | publisher =Oxford University Press | location =New York | isbn =978-0-19-510279-6 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=NHIBM3p83UcC&pg=PA181 | access-date =16 October 2020 | archive-date =14 December 2023 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20231214060059/https://books.google.com/books?id=NHIBM3p83UcC&pg=PA181#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status =live }}
* {{Citation | last =Ehrman | first =Bart D. | year =2003 | author-link =Bart D. Ehrman | title =Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =978-0-19-972712-4 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=vDzRCwAAQBAJ | access-date =27 February 2019 | archive-date =14 December 2023 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20231214060100/https://books.google.com/books?id=vDzRCwAAQBAJ | url-status =live }}
* {{Citation | last =Ehrman | first =Bart | year =2014 | title =How Jesus became God: The Exaltation of a Jewish Preacher from Galilee | publisher =Harper Collins | url =https://archive.org/details/howjesusbecamego0000ehrm }}
* {{Citation | last1 =Espín | first1 =Orlando O. | last2 =Nickoloff | first2 =James B. | year =2007 | title =An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies | publisher =Liturgical Press | isbn =978-0-8146-5856-7}}

* {{Citation | last =Fahlbusch | first =Erwin | year =1999| title =The encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher = Brill}}
*Fuller, Reginald H. (1965). ''[[Reginald H. Fuller#The Foundations of New Testament Christology|The Foundations of New Testament Christology]]''. New York: Scribners. {{ISBN|0-684-15532-X}}

* Greene, Colin J.D. (2004). ''Christology in Cultural Perspective: Marking Out the Horizons''. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8028-2792-6}}
* {{Citation | last =Grillmeier | first =Alois | year =1975 | author-link =Aloys Grillmeier | chapter =Jesus Christ: III. Christology | editor1-last =Rahner | editor1-first =Karl | editor1-link =Karl Rahner | title =Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise Sacramentum Mundi | edition =reprint | publisher =A&C Black | isbn =9780860120063 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=WtnR-6_PlJAC | access-date =2016-05-09 }}
* {{Citation | last1 =Grillmeier | first1 =Aloys | last2 =Bowden | first2 =John | year =1975 | title =Christ in Christian Tradition: From the Apostolic Age to Chalcedon | publisher =Westminster John Knox Press | isbn =978-0-664-22301-4 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=LH-cBwmmY2cC&q=Pauline+Christology&pg=PA15 }}

* Hodgson, Peter C. (1994). ''Winds of the Spirit: A Constructive Christian Theology''. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press.

* {{Citation | last =Kärkkäinen | first =Veli-Matti | year =2016 | title =Christology: A Global Introduction | publisher =Baker Academic}}
*Kingsbury, Jack Dean (1989). ''The Christology of Mark's Gospel.'' Philadelphia: Fortress Press.

*Letham, Robert. ''The Work of Christ. Contours of Christian Theology''. Downer Grove: IVP, 1993, {{ISBN|0-8308-1532-5}}
* {{Citation | last =Loke | first =Andrew Ter Ern | year =2017 | title =The Origin of Divine Christology | volume =169 | publisher =Cambridge University Press | isbn =978-1-108-19142-5 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=Et0qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 }}

* {{Citation | last =Mack | first =Burton L. | year =1995 | author-link =Burton L. Mack | title =Who wrote the New Testament? The making of the Christian myth | publisher =Harper San Francisco | isbn =978-0-06-065517-4 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=dZ8NAQAAMAAJ }}
* {{Citation | last =McGrath | first =Alister E. | year =2006 | title =Christianity: an introduction | publisher =Wiley | isbn =978-1-4051-0901-7}}
*[[Donald Macleod (theologian)|MacLeod, Donald]] (1998). ''The Person of Christ: Contours of Christian Theology''. Downer Grove: IVP, {{ISBN|0-8308-1537-6}}
* {{Citation | last =McGrath | first =Alister E. | year =2007 | title =Christian theology: an introduction | publisher =Blackwell | location =Malden, Mass. | isbn =978-1-4051-5360-7 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=tHlY94UWi3UC&q=Justin+Martyr+christology&pg=PA282 | access-date =16 October 2020 | archive-date =14 December 2023 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20231214061137/https://books.google.com/books?id=tHlY94UWi3UC&q=Justin+Martyr+christology&pg=PA282 | url-status =live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Meyendorff |first=John |author-link=John Meyendorff |year=1989 |title=Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D. |series=The Church in history |volume=2 |location=Crestwood, NY |publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press |isbn=978-0-88-141056-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ |access-date=9 November 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112174712/https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}

* {{Citation | last =Netland | first =Harold | year =2001 | title =Encountering Religious Pluralism: The Challenge to Christian Faith & Mission | publisher =InterVarsity Press | url =https://archive.org/details/encounteringreli0000netl }}

* {{Citation | last1 =O'Collins | first1 =Gerald | last2 =Kendall | first2 =Daniel | year =1996 | title =Focus on Jesus: Essays in Christology and Soteriology | publisher =Gracewing Publishing}}
* {{Citation | last =O'Collins | first =Gerald | year =2009 | title =Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus | publisher =OUP Oxford | isbn =978-0-19-955787-5}}

* {{Citation | last =Packer | first =J. I. | year =1973 | title =What did the Cross Achieve? The Logic of Penal Substitution | publisher =Tyndale Biblical Theology Lecture}}
* {{Citation | last =Pannenberg | first =Wolfhart | year =1968 | title =Jesus God and Man | publisher =Westminster John Knox Press | isbn =978-0-664-24468-2}}
* [[Wolfhart Pannenberg]], ''Systematic Theology'', T & T Clark, 1994 Vol.2.
* {{Citation | last1 =Price | first1 =Richard | last2 =Gaddis | first2 =Michael | year =2006 | title =The acts of the Council of Chalcedon | isbn =978-0-85323-039-7}}
* {{Citation | last =Pugh | first =Ben | year =2015 | title =Atonement Theories: A Way through the Maze | publisher =James Clarke & Co}}

* {{Citation | last =Rahner | first =Karl | year =2004 |title =Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi | isbn =978-0-86012-006-3}}
* {{Citation | last = Ramm | first = Bernard L. | year =1993 | author-link = Bernard Ramm | chapter = Christology at the Center | title = An Evangelical Christology: Ecumenic and Historic | publisher = Regent College Publishing | isbn = 9781573830089}}
* {{Citation| last =Rausch | first =Thomas P. | year = 2003 | title = Who is Jesus? : an introduction to Christology | publisher =Liturgical Press | isbn = 978-0-8146-5078-3}}

* Schwarz, Hans (1998). ''Christology''. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8028-4463-4}}

* {{Citation | last =Talbert | first =Charles H. | year =2011 | title =The Development of Christology during the First Hundred Years: and Other Essays on Early Christian Christology. Supplements to Novum Testamentum 140 | publisher =Brill}}
* {{Citation | last =Taylor | first =Vincent | year =1956 | author-link =Vincent Taylor (theologian) | title =The Cross of Christ | publisher =Macmillan & Co}}

* {{Citation | last =Weaver | first =J. Denny | year =2001 | title =The Nonviolent Atonement | publisher =Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing}}
* {{Citation | last =Witherington | first =Ben | year =2009 | author-link =Ben Witherington III | chapter =Christology – Paul’s christology | editor-last1 =Hawthorne | editor-first1 =Gerald F. | editor-last2 =Martin | editor-first2 =Ralph P. | editor-last3 =Reid | editor-first3 =Daniel G. | title =Dictionary of Paul and His Letters: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship | publisher =InterVarsity Press | isbn =978-0-8308-7491-0 | chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=QfLIDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT106 }}
{{Refend}}

;Web-sources
{{Reflist|group=web}}

==Further reading==
;Overview
* {{Citation | last =Kärkkäinen | first =Veli-Matti | author-link=Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen| year =2016 | title =Christology: A Global Introduction | publisher =Baker Academic |ref=none}}{{ISBN?}}
* {{cite book|last=Reeves |first=Michael | title=Rejoicing in Christ |publisher=IVP |year=2015 |isbn=978-0830840229 }}
;Early high Christology
* {{Citation | last =Moehlman | first =Conrad Henry | author-link=Conrad Henry Moehlman| year =1960 | title =How Jesus Became God: An Historical Study of the Life of Jesus to the Age of Constantine | publisher =Philosophical Library | url =https://archive.org/details/howjesusbecamego0000moeh |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Bird |first =Michael F. | author-link=Michael Bird (theologian)| year =2017 | title =Jesus the Eternal Son: Answering Adoptionist Christology | publisher =Wim. B. Eerdmans Publishing | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=uixbDwAAQBAJ | isbn =978-0-8028-7506-8 |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Hurtado | first =Larry W. | author-link=Larry Hurtado | year =2003 | title =Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity | publisher =Eerdmans | isbn =978-0802860705 | oclc =51623141 |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Hurtado | first =Larry W. | year =2005 | title =How on Earth did Jesus Become a God? Historical Questions about Earliest Devotion to Jesus | publisher=Eerdmans |url=https://archive.org/details/howonearthdidjes0000hurt| isbn =978-0802828613 |oclc=61461917 |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Bauckham | first =Richard | author-link= Richard Bauckham | year =2008 | title =Jesus and the God of Israel: God Crucified and Other Studies on the New Testament's Christology of Divine Identity | publisher =Eerdmans | isbn =978-0-8028-4559-7 |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Ehrman | first =Bart D. | author-link= Bart D. Ehrman| year =2014 | title =How Jesus became God: The Exaltation of a Jewish Preacher from Galilee | publisher =Harper Collins | url =https://archive.org/details/howjesusbecamego0000ehrm |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Bird | first1 =Michael F. | last2 =Evans | first2 =Craig A. | last3 =Gathercole | first3 =Simon | last4 =Hill | first4 =Charles E. | last5 =Tilling | first5 =Chris | year =2014 | title =How God Became Jesus: The Real Origins of Belief in Jesus' Divine Nature – A Response to Bart Ehrman | publisher =Zondervan | isbn =978-0-310-51961-4 |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Loke | first =Andrew Ter Ern | year =2017 | title =The Origin of Divine Christology | publisher =Cambridge University Press | isbn =978-1107199262 |ref=none}}
* {{Citation |title=Jesus Monotheism: Volume 1: Christological Origins: The Emerging Consensus and Beyond |last=Fletcher-Louis |first=Crispin |year=2015 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-7252-5622-4}}
;Atonement
* {{Citation | last =Pugh | first =Ben | year =2015 | title =Atonement Theories: A Way through the Maze | publisher =James Clarke & Co |ref=none}}{{ISBN?}}

==External links==
*[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9399699/Christology Encyclopædia Britannica, Christology – full access article]

{{Christian theology|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Christianity footer}}
{{Jesus footer}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Christology| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Christian controversies]]
[[Category:Catholic theology and doctrine]]
[[Category:Christian terminology]]
[[Category:Systematic theology]]

Protestantism

2024-04-16T19:33:02Z

2A00:23C6:F389:B301:E94F:7595:CDDA:677B:

{{Short description|Major branch of Christianity}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Protestantism|expanded=Topics}}
{{Christianity|expanded=hide}}
[[File:Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|The door to [[All Saints' Church, Wittenberg|All Saints' Church]] in [[Wittenberg]], where [[Martin Luther]] allegedly posted his ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' in 1517 detailing his concerns with what he saw as the [[Catholic Church]]'s abuse and corruption. The ''Ninety-five Theses'' gave rise to [[Christianity|Christian Protestantism]] as one of the world's primary religions, making Wittenberg the "cradle of Protestantism".]]
'''Protestantism''' is a branch of [[Christianity]]{{efn|Generally regarded as a division of [[Western Christianity]], though [[Eastern Protestant Christianity|Eastern Protestant]] denominations have developed outside of the West.}} that emphasizes justification by God [[Sola fide|through faith alone]], the teaching that [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] comes by unmerited [[Grace in Christianity|divine grace]], the [[Universal priesthood|priesthood of all believers]], and the [[Bible]] as the sole infallible source of authority for Christian faith and practice.<ref name="WELS2014">{{cite web|url=http://www.wels.net/what-we-believe/questions-answers/christian/methodist-beliefs|title=Methodist Beliefs: In what ways are Lutherans different from United Methodists?|year=2014|publisher=Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod|access-date=22 May 2014|quote=The United Methodists see Scripture as the primary source and criterion for Christian doctrine, emphasizing the importance of tradition, experience, and reason for Christian doctrine. Lutherans teach that the Bible is the sole source for Christian doctrine. The truths of Scripture do not need to be authenticated by tradition, human experience, or reason. Scripture is self authenticating and is true in and of itself.|archive-date=22 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522105449/http://www.wels.net/what-we-believe/questions-answers/christian/methodist-beliefs|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGqVAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159|title=Mothering the Fatherland: A Protestant Sisterhood Repents for the Holocaust|first=George|last=Faithful|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0199363476|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523002949/https://books.google.com/books?id=YGqVAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[five solae|five ''solae'']] summarize the basic theological beliefs of mainstream Protestantism.<ref name="WELS2014" />

Protestants follow the [[theological]] tenets of the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]], a movement that began in the 16th century with the goal of reforming the [[Catholic Church]] from perceived [[Criticism of the Catholic Church|errors, abuses, and discrepancies]].<ref>Löffler, K. (1910), [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09162a.htm Pope Leo X], [[The Catholic Encyclopedia]], New York: Robert Appleton Company, "The immediate cause was bound up with the odious greed for money displayed by the Roman Curia, and shows how far short all efforts at reform had hitherto fallen...Abuses occurred during the preaching of the Indulgence. The money contributions, a mere accessory, were frequently the chief object, and the "Indulgences for the Dead" became a vehicle of inadmissible teachings...(The pope) gave himself up unrestrainedly to his pleasures and failed to grasp fully the duties of his high office."</ref>{{efn|Some movements such as the [[Hussites]] or the [[Lollards]] are also considered Protestant today, although their origins date back to centuries before the launch of the Reformation. Others, such as the [[Waldensians]], were later incorporated into another branch of Protestantism; in this case, the Reformed branch.}} The Reformation began in the [[Holy Roman Empire]]{{efn|Specifically, in [[Wittenberg]], [[Electoral Saxony]]. Even today, especially in German contexts, [[Saxony]] is often described as the "motherland of the Reformation" ({{lang-de|Mutterland der Reformation}}).}} in 1517, when [[Martin Luther]] published his ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' as a reaction against abuses in the sale of [[indulgence]]s by the Catholic Church, which purported to offer the remission of the [[Purgatory|temporal punishment]] of sins to their purchasers.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xLBa5aO7fgQC|title=Protestants: A History from Wittenberg to Pennsylvania 1517–1740|first=C. Scott|last=Dixon|date=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|via=Google Books|isbn=978-1444328110|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523002943/https://books.google.com/books?id=xLBa5aO7fgQC|url-status=live}}</ref> The term, however, derives from the [[Protestation at Speyer|letter of protestation]] from German Lutheran [[Fürst|princes]] in 1529 against an [[edict]] of the [[Diet of Speyer (1529)|Diet of Speyer]] condemning the [[Theology of Martin Luther|teachings of Martin Luther]] as [[Heresy in Christianity|heretical]].<ref>''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' (1974) art. "Speyer (Spires), Diets of"</ref> In the [[Christianity in the 16th century|16th century]], [[Lutheranism]] spread from Germany{{efn|At the time Germany and the surrounding region was fragmented into [[States of the Holy Roman Empire|numerous states]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Areas which turned Protestant were primarily located in northern, central and eastern areas of the Empire.}} into [[Denmark]], [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Finland]], [[Latvia]], [[Estonia]], and [[Iceland]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Htz8M1Xlqi4C&pg=PA9|title=Historical Dictionary of Lutheranism|first1=Günther|last1=Gassmann|first2=Duane H.|last2=Larson|first3=Mark W.|last3=Oldenburg|date=2001|publisher=Scarecrow Press|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0810866201|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-date=10 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610070110/https://books.google.com/books?id=Htz8M1Xlqi4C&pg=PA9|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Calvinist]] churches spread in Germany,{{efn|Several states of the Holy Roman Empire adopted Calvinism, including the [[Electoral Palatinate|County Palatine of the Rhine]].}} [[Hungary]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Scotland]], [[Switzerland]] and [[France]] by [[Protestant Reformers]] such as [[John Calvin]], [[Huldrych Zwingli]] and [[John Knox]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1asvyE-1DUkC&pg=PT19|title=Calvinism|first=Abraham|last=Kuyper|date=1899|publisher=Primedia E-launch LLC|via=Google Books|isbn=978-1622090457|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-date=10 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610070117/https://books.google.com/books?id=1asvyE-1DUkC&pg=PT19|url-status=live}}</ref> The political separation of the [[Church of England]] from the [[Roman Catholic Church]] under [[Henry VIII|King Henry VIII]] began [[Anglicanism]], bringing England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement, under the leadership of reformer [[Thomas Cranmer]], whose work forged Anglican doctrine and identity.{{efn|For further information, see [[English Reformation]]. In this article, Anglicanism is considered a branch of Protestantism as a part of movements derived directly from the 16th century Reformation. While today the [[Church of England]] often considers itself to be a ''[[via media]]'' between Protestantism and the Catholic Church, until the rise of the [[Oxford Movement]] in the 1830s the church generally considered itself to be Protestant. (Neill, Stephen. ''Anglicanism'' Pelican 1960, pp. 170, 259–260)}}

Protestantism is diverse, being divided into various denominations on the basis of [[Christian theology|theology]] and [[Protestant ecclesiology|ecclesiology]], not forming a single structure as with the Catholic Church, [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] or [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodoxy]].<ref name="Hillerbrand" /> Protestants adhere to the concept of an [[Church invisible|invisible church]], in contrast to the Catholic, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], and the [[Ancient Church of the East]], which all understand themselves as the one and only original church—the "[[one true church]]"—founded by Jesus Christ (though certain Protestant denominations, including historic Lutheranism, hold to this position).<ref name="Karl Heussi 1956 pp. 317–319">Heussi, Karl (1956). ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', 11., Tübingen (Germany), pp. 317–319, 325–326</ref><ref name="Remensnyder1893" /><ref name="Frey1918" /> Some [[Christian denomination|denominations]] do have a worldwide scope and distribution of [[church membership]], while others are confined to a single country.<ref name="Hillerbrand">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Hillerbrand |editor-given=Hans J. |title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism |volume=1–4 |year=2004 |place=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-92472-6 |url={{Google books|id=PMSTAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=59}} |archive-date=2020-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523002949/https://books.google.com/books?id=PMSTAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA349 |url-status=live}}</ref> A majority of Protestants{{efn|According to Pew 2011 report on Christianity about 60% (defined strictly, as some denominations given individual percentages in the report could be considered a part of one of the seven main distinguishable Protestant branches, e.g. [[The Salvation Army]] could be considered a part of Methodism). The majority figures given in such reports or in other sources may vary considerably.}} are members of a handful of Protestant denominational families; [[Adventism|Adventists]], [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]], [[Anglicanism|Anglicans/Episcopalians]], [[Baptists]], [[Reformed Christianity|Calvinist/Reformed]],{{efn|This branch was first called ''Calvinism'' by Lutherans who opposed it, but many find the word ''Reformed'' to be more descriptive.<ref name="Hägglund 2007">{{cite book |last=Hägglund|first=Bengt|title=Teologins Historia|language=de|trans-title=History of Theology|others=Translated by Gene J. Lund|edition=Fourth Revised|year=2007|location=Saint Louis|publisher=Concordia Publishing House}}</ref> It includes [[Presbyterianism]], [[Congregational church|Congregationalism]], many of [[united and uniting churches]], as well as historic [[Continental Reformed church]]es in France, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, Hungary, and elsewhere.}} [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], [[Methodism|Methodists]], [[Moravian Church|Moravians]], [[Plymouth Brethren]], [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]], and [[Quakerism|Quakers]].<ref name="pewforum1">{{cite web |date=19 December 2011 |title=Pewforum: Grobal Christianity |url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101114257/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |archive-date=1 November 2013 |access-date=14 May 2014}}</ref> [[Nondenominational Christianity|Nondenominational]], [[Charismatic movement|charismatic]] and [[Independent (religion)|independent]] churches are also on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestantism.<ref>[http://www.oikoumene.org/en/church-families/evangelical-churches World Council of Churches: Evangelical churches] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150107095948/http://www.oikoumene.org/en/church-families/evangelical-churches/ |date=7 January 2015 }}: "Evangelical churches have grown exponentially in the second half of the 20th century and continue to show great vitality, especially in the global South. This resurgence may in part be explained by the phenomenal growth of Pentecostalism and the emergence of the charismatic movement, which are closely associated with evangelicalism. However, there can be no doubt that the evangelical tradition "per se" has become one of the major components of world Christianity. Evangelicals also constitute sizable minorities in the traditional Protestant and Anglican churches. In regions like Africa and Latin America, the boundaries between "evangelical" and "mainline" are rapidly changing and giving way to new ecclesial realities."</ref><ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ic5pyiIkTxAC&pg=PA16|title=Religion in Global Civil Society|first=Mark|last=Juergensmeyer|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0198040699|access-date=8 January 2016|archive-date=19 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130319211612/http://books.google.com/books?id=Ic5pyiIkTxAC&pg=PA16|url-status=live}}</ref>

Today, it is the fastest growing and [[List of Christian denominations by number of members|second-largest form]] of Christianity, with a total of 800 million to 1 billion adherents worldwide or about 37% of all [[Christians]].<ref name="pewforum1" /><ref name="gordonconwell.edu">{{cite web |date=January 2015 |title=Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact |url=http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/documents/1IBMR2015.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141543/http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/documents/1IBMR2015.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2017 |access-date=29 May 2015 |publisher=gordonconwell.edu}}</ref>{{efn|Most current estimates place the world's Protestant population in the range of 800 million to more than 1 billion. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total Protestant population of 833,457,000 in 2004,<ref name="books.google.pl">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Hillerbrand |editor-given=Hans J. |title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism |volume=1–4 |year=2004 |place=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-92472-6 |page=2 |url={{Google books|id=PMSTAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=2}} |archive-date=2020-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523002949/https://books.google.com/books?id=PMSTAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA349 |url-status=live}}</ref> while a report by Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary – 961,961,000 (with inclusion of independents as defined in this article) in mid-2015.<ref name="gordonconwell.edu"/>}} By 2050, Protestantism is projected to comprise a majority of the world's total Christian population.<ref name=":32">Johnstone, Patrick, [https://books.google.com/books?id=AVzFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 "The Future of the Global Church: History, Trends and Possibilities"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519062536/https://books.google.com/books?id=AVzFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109|date=19 May 2020}}, p. 100, fig 4.10 & 4.11</ref>{{efn|Magisterial Protestant, Independent, Anabaptist and Anglican parties are understood as Protestant as stated previously in the article, as well as in the book: ''Statistics for the P, I and A megablocs are often combined because they overlap so much-hence the order followed here.''}} According to [[Mark Juergensmeyer|Mark Jürgensmeyer]] of the [[University of California, Santa Barbara|University of California]], popular Protestantism{{efn|A flexible term; defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving from the Protestant Reformation.}} is the most dynamic religious movement in the contemporary world.<ref name="books.google.com" />{{TOC limit|3}}

==Terminology==
{{multiple image
|align=right
|direction=horizontal
|width1=220
|image1=Gedaechtniskirche Speyer Sued.jpg
|caption1=[[Gedächtniskirche (Speyer)|Memorial Church]], finished and consecrated 1904, in [[Speyer]], Germany commemorates the [[Protestation at Speyer|Protestation]].
|width2=130
|image2=Protestierende-Speyer Worms Lutherdenkmal (37a).jpg
|caption2=''The Protesting Speyer'', part of the [[Luther Monument (Worms)|Luther Monument]] in [[Worms, Germany]]}}

===Protestant===
Six princes of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and rulers of fourteen [[Imperial Free City|Imperial Free Cities]], who issued [[protestation at Speyer|a protest]] (or dissent) against the edict of the [[Diet of Speyer (1529)]], were the first individuals to be called Protestants.<ref name="etymonline.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=protestant|title=protestant – Origin and meaning of protestant |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=31 December 2014|archive-date=31 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231135327/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=protestant|url-status=live}}</ref> The edict reversed concessions made to the [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] with the approval of [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] [[Diet of Speyer (1526)|three years earlier]]. The term ''protestant'', though initially purely political in nature, later acquired a broader sense, referring to a member of any Western church which subscribed to the main Protestant principles.<ref name="etymonline.com"/> A Protestant is an adherent of any of those Christian bodies that separated from the Church of Rome during the Reformation, or of any group descended from them.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=Definition of Protestant |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/protestant |website=Dictionary.com |access-date=15 October 2019 |archive-date=15 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015034937/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/protestant |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the Reformation, the term ''protestant'' was hardly used outside of German politics. People who were involved in the religious movement used the word ''evangelical'' ({{lang-de|evangelisch}}). For further details, see the section below. Gradually, ''protestant'' became a general term, meaning any adherent of the Reformation in the German-speaking area. It was ultimately somewhat taken up by Lutherans, even though [[Martin Luther]] himself insisted on ''Christian'' or ''evangelical'' as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed faith in Christ. [[Huguenots|French]] and [[Reformation in Switzerland|Swiss Protestants]] instead preferred the word ''reformed'' ({{lang-fr|réformé}}), which became a popular, neutral, and alternative name for Calvinists.

===Evangelical===
The word ''evangelical'' ({{lang-de|evangelisch}}), which refers to [[the gospel]], was widely used for those involved in the religious movement in the German-speaking area beginning in 1517.<ref>{{cite book |last=MacCulloch |first=Diarmaid |title=The Reformation: A History |location=New York |publisher=Penguin |year=2003 |author-link=Diarmaid MacCulloch |page=xx|title-link=The Reformation: A History}}</ref> ''Evangelical'' is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran, Calvinist, and United (Lutheran and Reformed) Protestant traditions in Europe, and those with strong ties to them. Above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the [[German-speaking Europe|German-speaking area]], such as the [[Protestant Church in Germany]]. Thus, the [[German language|German]] word ''{{lang|de|evangelisch}}'' means Protestant, while the German ''{{lang|de|evangelikal}}'', refers to churches shaped by [[Evangelicalism]]. The English word ''evangelical'' usually refers to [[evangelical Protestant]] churches, and therefore to a certain part of Protestantism rather than to Protestantism as a whole. The English word traces its roots back to the [[Puritans]] in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States.

Martin Luther always disliked the term ''Lutheran'', preferring the term ''evangelical'', which was derived from ''euangelion'', a Greek word meaning "good news", i.e. "[[The Gospel|gospel]]".<ref name=OOE796>Espín, Orlando O. and Nickoloff, James B. ''An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies''. Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, p. 796.</ref> The followers of [[John Calvin]], [[Huldrych Zwingli]], and other theologians linked to the [[Reformed tradition]] also began to use that term. To distinguish the two evangelical groups, others began to refer to the two groups as ''Evangelical Lutheran'' and ''Evangelical Reformed''. The word also pertains in the same way to some other mainline groups, for example ''Evangelical Methodist''. As time passed by, the word ''evangelical'' was dropped. Lutherans themselves began to use the term ''Lutheran'' in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the [[Philippists]] and [[Calvinists]].

===Reformational===
The [[German language|German]] word ''{{lang|de|reformatorisch}}'', which roughly translates to English as "reformational" or "reforming", is used as an alternative for ''{{lang|de|evangelisch}}'' in German, and is different from English ''reformed'' ({{lang-de|reformiert}}), which refers to churches shaped by ideas of [[John Calvin]], [[Huldrych Zwingli]], and other Reformed theologians. Derived from the word "Reformation", the term emerged around the same time as ''Evangelical'' (1517) and ''Protestant'' (1529).

==Theology==

===Main principles===
{{multiple image
|align=right
|direction=vertical
|width=250
|image1=Mikolow protestant church pulpit.jpg
|caption1=Two central figures of the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]], [[Martin Luther]] and [[John Calvin]], depicted on a church [[pulpit]]; both Luther and Calvin emphasized making preaching a centerpiece of worship.
|image2=Lutherbibel.jpg
|caption2=The [[Bible]] translated into [[vernacular]] by Martin Luther. In Protestantism, the Bible is the supreme authority of [[religious text|scripture]].}}
Various experts on the subject tried to determine what makes a Christian denomination a part of Protestantism. A common consensus approved by most of them is that if a Christian denomination is to be considered Protestant, it must acknowledge the following three fundamental principles of Protestantism.<ref name = "Encyclopedia of Protestantism">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Melton |editor-given=J. Gordon |editor-link=J. Gordon Melton |year=2005 |title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism |place=New York |publisher=Facts On File |series=Encyclopedia of World Religions |url={{Google books|id=bW3sXBjnokkC|plainurl=y|page=}} |isbn=0-8160-5456-8 |archive-date=2021-03-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323181207/https://books.google.com/books?id=bW3sXBjnokkC&pg=PR11 |url-status=live}}</ref>

====Scripture alone====
{{main|Sola scriptura}}
The belief, emphasized by Luther, in the Bible as the highest source of authority for the church. The early churches of the Reformation believed in a critical, yet serious, reading of scripture and holding the Bible as a source of authority higher than that of [[Sacred Tradition|church tradition]]. The many abuses that had occurred in the Western Church before the Protestant Reformation led the Reformers to reject much of its tradition. In the early 20th century, a less critical reading of the Bible developed in the United States—leading to a "[[Christian fundamentalism|fundamentalist]]" reading of Scripture. Christian fundamentalists read the Bible as the "inerrant, [[Biblical infallibility|infallible]]" Word of God, as do the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and Lutheran churches, but interpret it in a [[Biblical literalism|literalist]] fashion without using the [[historical-critical method]]. Methodists and Anglicans differ from Lutherans and the Reformed on this doctrine as they teach ''[[prima scriptura]]'', which holds that Scripture is the primary source for Christian doctrine, but that "tradition, experience, and reason" can nurture the Christian religion as long as they are in harmony with the Bible ([[Protestant Bible|Protestant canon]]).<ref name="WELS2014"/><ref name="Humphrey2013">{{cite book|last=Humphrey|first=Edith M.|title=Scripture and Tradition |year=2013|publisher=Baker Books|language=en |isbn=978-1-4412-4048-4|page=16|quote=historically Anglicans have adopted what could be called a prima Scriptura position.}}</ref>

"Biblical Christianity" focused on a deep study of the Bible is characteristic of most Protestants as opposed to "Church Christianity", focused on performing rituals and good works, represented by Catholic and Orthodox traditions. However, [[Quakers]], [[Pentecostalists]] and [[Spiritual Christianity|Spiritual Christians]] emphasize the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]] and personal closeness to God.<ref>Woodhead, Linda. ''Christianity: A Very Short Introduction'' (Oxford University Press, 2014). pp. 57–70.</ref>

====Justification by faith alone====
{{main|Sola fide}}
The belief that believers are [[justification (theology)|justified]], or pardoned for sin, solely on condition of faith in [[Jesus|Christ]] rather than a combination of faith and [[good works]]. For Protestants, good works are a necessary consequence rather than cause of justification.<ref name="SchaffHerzog">{{cite book|first1=Johann Jakob|last1=Herzog|last2=Philip Schaff|first2=Albert|title=The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge|year=1911|page=419|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AmYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA419|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-date=6 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906050433/https://books.google.com/books?id=AmYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA419|url-status=live}}</ref> However, while justification is by faith alone, there is the position that faith is not ''nuda fides''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Justification by Faith in Catholic-Protestant Dialogue|last=Lane|first=Anthony|publisher=T & T Clark|year=2006|isbn=0567040046|location=London|page=27}}</ref> John Calvin explained that "it is therefore faith alone which justifies, and yet the faith which justifies is not alone: just as it is the heat alone of the sun which warms the earth, and yet in the sun it is not alone."<ref name=":0" /> Lutheran and Reformed Christians differ from Methodists in their understanding of this doctrine.<ref name="Bucher2014">{{cite web|url=http://www.orlutheran.com/html/methodism.html|title=Methodism|last=Bucher|first=Richard P.|year=2014|publisher=Lutheran Church Missouri Synod|location=Lexington|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725061927/http://www.orlutheran.com/html/methodism.html|archive-date=25 July 2014|quote=Also, for Methodists full salvation involves not only justification by faith, but repentance and holy living as well. Whereas in Lutheran theology the central doctrine and focus of all our worship and life is justification by grace through faith, for Methodists the central focus has always been holy living and the striving for perfection. Wesley gave the analogy of a house. He said repentance is the porch. Faith is the door. But holy living is the house itself. Holy living is true religion. “Salvation is like a house. To get into the house you first have to get on the porch (repentance) and then you have to go through the door (faith). But the house itself—one’s relationship with God—is holiness, holy living” (Joyner, paraphrasing Wesley, 3).}}</ref>

====Universal priesthood of believers====
The universal [[Priesthood of all believers|priesthood of believers]] implies the right and duty of the Christian laity not only to read the Bible in the [[vernacular]], but also to take part in the government and all the public affairs of the Church. It is opposed to the hierarchical system which puts the essence and authority of the Church in an exclusive priesthood, and which makes ordained priests the necessary mediators between God and the people.<ref name="SchaffHerzog" /> It is distinguished from the concept of the priesthood of all believers, which did not grant individuals the right to interpret the Bible apart from the Christian community at large because universal priesthood opened the door to such a possibility.<ref name="willsky">{{Cite book|title=American Unitarianism and the Protestant Dilemma: The Conundrum of Biblical Authority|last=Willsky-Ciollo|first=Lydia|publisher=Lexington Books |year=2015 |isbn=978-0739188927|location=Lanham, MD|pages=9–10}}</ref> There are scholars who cite that this doctrine tends to subsume all distinctions in the church under a single spiritual entity.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Spiritual Theology: A Systematic Study of the Christian Life|last=Chan|first=Simon|publisher=IVP Academic|year=1998|isbn=978-0830815425|location=Downers Grove, IL|page=105}}</ref> Calvin referred to the universal priesthood as an expression of the relation between the believer and his God, including the freedom of a Christian to come to God through Christ without human mediation.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=The Church in the Theology of the Reformers|last=Avis|first=Paul|publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers|year=2002|isbn=1592441009|location=Eugene, OR|page=95}}</ref> He also maintained that this principle recognizes Christ as [[prophet]], priest, and king and that his priesthood is shared with his people.<ref name=":1" />

===Trinity===
{{See also|Trinity|Nontrinitarianism}}
[[File:Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|The [[Trinity]] is the belief that [[God]] is one God in three persons: [[God the Father|the Father]], [[Jesus|the Son]] ([[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]]), and the [[Holy Spirit]]]]
Protestants who adhere to the [[Nicene Creed]] believe in three [[Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|person]]s ([[God the Father]], [[God the Son]], and the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|God the Holy Spirit]]) as one God.

Movements that emerged around the time of the Protestant Reformation, but are not a part of Protestantism (e.g. [[Unitarianism]]), reject the [[Trinity]]. This often serves as a reason for exclusion of the [[Unitarian Universalism]], [[Oneness Pentecostalism]], and other movements from Protestantism by various observers. Unitarianism continues to have a presence mainly in [[Transylvania]], England, and the United States.<ref name="willsky" />

===Five solae===
{{Main|Five solae}}
The Five ''{{lang|la|solae}}'' are five [[Latin]] phrases (or slogans) that emerged during the [[Protestant Reformation]] and summarize the reformers' basic differences in theological beliefs in opposition to the teaching of the [[Catholic Church]] of the day. The Latin word ''{{lang|la|sola}}'' means "alone", "only", or "single".

The use of the phrases as summaries of teaching emerged over time during the Reformation, based on the overarching Lutheran and Reformed principle of ''{{lang|la|[[sola scriptura]]}}'' (by scripture alone).<ref name="WELS2014"/> This idea contains the four main doctrines on the Bible: that its teaching is needed for salvation (necessity); that all the doctrine necessary for salvation comes from the Bible alone (sufficiency); that everything taught in the Bible is correct (inerrancy); and that, by the Holy Spirit overcoming sin, believers may read and understand truth from the Bible itself, though understanding is difficult, so the means used to guide individual believers to the true teaching is often mutual discussion within the church (clarity).

The necessity and inerrancy were well-established ideas, garnering little criticism, though they later came under debate from outside during the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. The most contentious idea at the time though was the notion that anyone could simply pick up the Bible and learn enough to gain salvation. Though the reformers were concerned with [[ecclesiology]] (the doctrine of how the church as a body works), they had a different understanding of the process in which truths in scripture were applied to life of believers, compared to the Catholics' idea that certain people within the church, or ideas that were old enough, had a special status in giving understanding of the text.

The second main principle, ''{{lang|la|[[sola fide]]}}'' (by faith alone), states that faith in Christ is sufficient alone for eternal salvation and justification. Though argued from scripture, and hence logically consequent to ''{{lang|la|sola scriptura}}'', this is the guiding principle of the work of Luther and the later reformers. Because ''{{lang|la|sola scriptura}}'' placed the Bible as the only source of teaching, ''{{lang|la|sola fide}}'' epitomizes the main thrust of the teaching the reformers wanted to get back to, namely the direct, close, personal connection between Christ and the believer, hence the reformers' contention that their work was Christocentric.

The other solas, as statements, emerged later, but the thinking they represent was also part of the early Reformation.
* ''{{lang|la|[[Solus Christus]]}}'': ''Christ alone''
: The Protestants characterize the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth, the concept of works made meritorious by Christ, and the Catholic idea of a treasury of the merits of Christ and his saints, as a denial that Christ is the ''only'' mediator between [[God]] and man. Catholics, on the other hand, maintained the traditional understanding of Judaism on these questions, and appealed to the universal consensus of Christian tradition.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matt.|16:18}}, {{Bibleref2|1Cor.|3:11||1 Cor. 3:11}}, {{Bibleref2|Eph.|2:20}}, {{Bibleref2|1Pet.|2:5–6||1 Pet. 2:5–6}}, {{Bibleref2|Rev.|21:14}}</ref>
* ''{{lang|la|[[Sola Gratia]]}}'': ''Grace alone''
: Protestants perceived Catholic salvation to be dependent upon the grace of God and the merits of one's own works. The reformers posited that salvation is a gift of God (i.e., God's act of free grace), dispensed by the Holy Spirit owing to the redemptive work of Jesus Christ alone. Consequently, they argued that a sinner is not accepted by God on account of the change wrought in the believer by God's grace, and that the believer is accepted without regard for the merit of his works, for no one ''deserves'' salvation.<ref>{{bibleverse|Matt.|7:21}}</ref>
* ''{{lang|la|[[Soli Deo Gloria]]}}'': ''Glory to God alone''
: All glory is due to God alone since salvation is accomplished solely through his will and action—not only the gift of the all-sufficient [[Atonement in Christianity|atonement]] of [[Jesus]] on [[Christian cross|the cross]] but also the gift of faith in that atonement, created in the heart of the believer by the [[Holy Spirit]]. The reformers believed that human beings—even saints [[canonization|canonized]] by the Catholic Church, the popes, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy—are not worthy of the glory.

===Christ's presence in the Eucharist===
{{Main|Eucharistic theology}}
[[File:Abendmahl-1547-LC.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|A 1547 [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] depiction of the [[Last Supper]] by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]]]
The Protestant movement began to diverge into several distinct branches in the mid-to-late 16th century. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over the [[Eucharist]]. Early Protestants rejected the Catholic [[dogma]] of [[transubstantiation]], which teaches that the bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass lose their natural substance by being transformed into the body, blood, soul, and divinity of Christ. They disagreed with one another concerning the presence of Christ and his body and blood in Holy Communion.
* Lutherans hold that in the [[Eucharist|Lord's Supper]], the Body and Blood of Christ are present "in, with, and under the form" of bread and wine for all those who eat and drink it,<ref>{{bibleverse|1Cor|10:16|47}}, {{bibleverse|1Cor|11:20, 27|47|11:20, 27}}</ref><ref>Engelder, T.E.W., [https://archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1 ''Popular Symbolics'']. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 95, Part XXIV. "The Lord's Supper", paragraph 131.</ref> a doctrine that the [[Formula of Concord]] calls the [[Sacramental union]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bookofconcord.com/fc-sd/supper.html |title=The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, Article 8, The Holy Supper |publisher=Bookofconcord.com |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-date=21 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121030003/http://bookofconcord.com/fc-sd/supper.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> God earnestly offers to all who receive the sacrament,<ref>{{bibleverse|Lk|22:19–20|50}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Graebner |first=Augustus Lawrence |url=http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt |title=Outlines of Doctrinal Theology |page=162 |location=Saint Louis, MO |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1910 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415004724/http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt |archive-date=15 April 2009}}</ref> forgiveness of sins,<ref>{{bibleverse|Mt|26:28|50}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Graebner |first=Augustus Lawrence |url=http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt |title=Outlines of Doctrinal Theology |page=163 |location=Saint Louis, MO |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1910 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110528150447/http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt |archive-date=28 May 2011}}</ref> and eternal salvation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Graebner |first=Augustus Lawrence |url=http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt |title=Outlines of Doctrinal Theology |page=163 |location=St. Louis, MO |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1910 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415004724/http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt |archive-date=15 April 2009}}</ref>
* The [[Reformed churches]] emphasize the [[Real presence#Reformed|real ''spiritual'' presence]], or ''sacramental presence'', of Christ, saying that the sacrament is a sanctifying grace through which the elect believer does not actually partake of Christ, but merely ''with'' the bread and wine rather than in the elements. Calvinists deny the Lutheran assertion that all communicants, both believers and unbelievers, orally receive Christ's body and blood in the elements of the [[sacrament]] but instead affirm that Christ is united to the believer through faith—toward which the supper is an outward and visible aid. Calvin also emphasizes the real presence of Christ by the Holy Spirit during Eucharist. This is often referred to as ''dynamic presence''.
* Anglicans and Methodists refuse to define the Presence, preferring to leave it a mystery.<ref name="Neal2014">{{cite book|last=Neal|first=Gregory S.|title=Sacramental Theology and the Christian Life|year= 2014|publisher=WestBow Press|isbn=978-1490860077|page=111|quote=For Anglicans and Methodists the reality of the presence of Jesus as received through the sacramental elements is not in question. Real presence is simply accepted as being true, its mysterious nature being affirmed and even lauded in official statements like ''This Holy Mystery: A United Methodist Understanding of Holy Communion.''}}</ref> The Prayer Books describe the bread and wine as outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace which is the Body and Blood of Christ. However, the words of their liturgies suggest that one can hold to a belief in the Real Presence and Spiritual and Sacramental Present at the same time. For example, "... and you have fed us with the spiritual food in the Sacrament of his body and Blood;" "...the spiritual food of the most precious Body and Blood of your Son our Saviour Jesus Christ, and for assuring us in these holy mysteries..." American Book of Common Prayer, 1977, pp. 365–366.
* Anabaptists hold a popular simplification of the [[Theology of Huldrych Zwingli|Zwinglian view]], without concern for theological intricacies as hinted at above, may see the Lord's Supper merely as a symbol of the shared faith of the participants, a commemoration of the facts of the crucifixion, and a reminder of their standing together as the body of Christ (a view referred to as ''memorialism'').<ref name="Balmer2002">{{cite book|last1=Balmer|first1=Randall Herbert|last2=Winner|first2=Lauren F.|title=Protestantism in America|url=https://archive.org/details/protestantismame00balm_593|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|location=[[New York City|New York]]|isbn=978-0231111300|page=[https://archive.org/details/protestantismame00balm_593/page/n42 26]}}</ref>

=== Other beliefs ===
Protestants reject the Catholic doctrine of [[papal supremacy]], and have variant views on the number of [[sacrament]]s, the [[Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist|real presence]] of [[Jesus in Christianity|Christ]] in the [[Eucharist]], and matters of [[ecclesiastical polity]] and [[apostolic succession]].<ref name="Haffner1999">{{cite book |last=Haffner |first=Paul |title=The Sacramental Mystery |publisher=Gracewing Publishing |year=1999 |isbn=978-0852444764 |page=11 |quote=The [[Augsburg Confession]] drawn up by Melanchton, one of Luther's disciples admitted only three sacraments, Baptist, the Lord's Supper and Penance. Melanchton left the way open for the other five sacred signs to be considered as "secondary sacraments". However, Zwingli, Calvin and most of the later Reformed tradition accepted only Baptism and the Lord's Supper as sacraments, but in a highly symbolic sense.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dixon |first=C. Scott |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xLBa5aO7fgQC |title=Protestants: A History from Wittenberg to Pennsylvania 1517–1740 |date=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1444328110 |access-date=27 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523002943/https://books.google.com/books?id=xLBa5aO7fgQC |archive-date=23 May 2020 |url-status=live |via=Google Books}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Protestantism}}

===Pre-Reformation===
{{See also|Proto-Protestantism|Girolamo Savonarola}}
[[File:lollardmap.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Spread of [[Lollardy]] in [[Medieval England]] and [[Medieval Scotland]]]]
[[File:Muttich, Kamil Vladislav - Mistr Jan Hus na hranici v Kostnici 1415.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|The execution of [[Jan Hus]] in 1415]]
[[File:Girolamo-Savonarola----w.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Girolamo Savonarola]]]]
[[File:Portret van Johan Wessel Gansfort, RP-P-1906-1520.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Wessel Gansfort]]]]
One of the earliest persons to be praised as a Protestant forerunner is [[Jovinian]], who lived in the fourth century AD. He attacked [[monasticism]], [[Asceticism|ascetism]] and believed that a saved believer can never be overcome by Satan.<ref>{{cite web|title=Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume III: Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 311–600 – Christian Classics Ethereal Library|url=https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc3.iii.vii.xix.html|access-date=2021-12-21|website=www.ccel.org|archive-date=21 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211221094001/https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc3.iii.vii.xix.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the 9th century, the theologian [[Gottschalk of Orbais]] was condemned for heresy by the Catholic Church. Gottschalk believed that the salvation of Jesus was limited and that his redemption was only for the elect.<ref>{{cite web|title=Gottschalk Of Orbais {{!}} Roman Catholic theologian {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gottschalk-of-Orbais|access-date=2021-12-13|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|archive-date=21 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121161752/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gottschalk-of-Orbais|url-status=live}}</ref> The theology of Gottschalk anticipated the Protestant reformation.<ref>{{cite web|last=caryslmbrown|date=2017-07-18|title=Reformation parallels: the case of Gottschalk of Orbais|url=https://doinghistoryinpublic.org/2017/07/18/reformation-parallels-the-case-of-gottschalk-of-orbais/|access-date=2021-10-27|website=Doing History in Public|language=en|archive-date=28 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028215011/https://doinghistoryinpublic.org/2017/07/18/reformation-parallels-the-case-of-gottschalk-of-orbais/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Lockridge|first=Kenneth R.|title=Gottschalk "Fulgentius" of Orbais|url=https://www.academia.edu/11213309|access-date=13 December 2021|archive-date=14 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114133600/https://www.academia.edu/11213309|url-status=live}}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=August 2023}} [[Ratramnus]] also defended the theology of Gottschalk and denied the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist; his writings also influenced the later Protestant reformation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ratramnus {{!}} Benedictine theologian {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ratramnus|access-date=2021-12-14|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|archive-date=21 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121090330/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ratramnus|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Claudius of Turin]] in the 9th century also held Protestant ideas, such as [[Sola fide|faith alone]] and rejection of the supremacy of Peter.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Milner|first=Joseph|title=The History of the Church of Christ Volume 3|quote=A comment on the epistle to the Galatians, is his only work which was committed to the press. In it he every where asserts the equality of all the apostles with St. Peter. And, indeed, he always owns Jesus Christ to be the only proper head of the church. He is severe against the doctrine of human merits, and of the exaltation of traditions to a height of credibility equal to that of the divine word. He maintains that we are to be saved by faith alone; holds the fallibility of the church, exposes the futility of praying for the dead, and the sinfulness of the idolatrous practices then supported by the Roman see. Such are the sentiments found in his commentary on the epistle to the Galatians.}}</ref>

In the late 1130s, [[Arnold of Brescia]], an Italian [[canon regular]] became one of the first theologians to attempt to reform the Catholic Church. After his death, his teachings on [[apostolic poverty]] gained currency among [[Arnoldists]], and later more widely among [[Waldensians]] and the [[Spiritual Franciscans]], though no written word of his has survived the official condemnation. In the early 1170s, [[Peter Waldo]] founded the Waldensians. He advocated an interpretation of the Gospel that led to conflicts with the Catholic Church. By 1215, the Waldensians were declared heretical and subject to persecution. Despite that, the movement continues to exist to this day in Italy, as [[Waldensian Evangelical Church|a part of the wider Reformed tradition]].

In the 1370s, Oxford theologian and priest [[John Wycliffe]]—later dubbed the "Morning Star of Reformation"—started his activity as an English reformer. He rejected papal authority over secular power, [[Wycliffe's Bible|translated the Bible]] into [[vernacular]] [[English language|English]], and preached anticlerical and biblically centred reforms. His rejection of a real divine presence in the elements of the Eucharist foreshadowed Huldrych Zwingli's similar ideas in the 16th century. Wycliffe's admirers came to be known as "[[Lollardy|Lollards]]".<ref>{{Cite book |author=MacCulloch, Diarmaid |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1303898228 |title=A history of Christianity : the first three thousand years |oclc=1303898228 |access-date=29 June 2022 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831153624/http://worldcat.org/title/1303898228 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Beginning in the first decade of the 15th century, [[Jan Hus]]—a Catholic priest, Czech reformist and professor—influenced by John Wycliffe's writings, founded the [[Hussite]] movement. He strongly advocated his reformist [[Bohemia]]n religious denomination. He was [[excommunication|excommunicated]] and [[burned at the stake]] in [[Konstanz|Constance]], [[Bishopric of Constance]], in 1415 by secular authorities for unrepentant and persistent heresy. After his execution, a revolt erupted. Hussites defeated five continuous crusades proclaimed against them by the [[Pope]].

Later theological disputes caused a split within the Hussite movement. [[Utraquism|Utraquists]] maintained that both the bread and the wine should be administered to the people during the Eucharist. Another major faction were the [[Taborites]], who opposed the Utraquists in the [[Battle of Lipany]] during the [[Hussite Wars]]. There were two separate parties among the Hussites: moderate and radical movements. Other smaller regional Hussite branches in [[Bohemia]] included [[Adamites]], [[Orebites]], [[Sirotci|Orphans]], and Praguers.

The Hussite Wars concluded with the victory of [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund]], his Catholic allies and moderate Hussites and the defeat of the radical Hussites. Tensions arose as the [[Thirty Years' War]] reached Bohemia in 1620. Both moderate and radical Hussitism was increasingly persecuted by Catholics and Holy Roman Emperor's armies.

In the 14th century, a German mysticist group called the [[Friends of God|Gottesfreunde]] criticized the Catholic church and its corruption. Many of their leaders were executed for attacking the Catholic church and they believed that God's judgement would soon come upon the church. The Gottesfreunde were a democratic lay movement and forerunner of the Reformation and put heavy stress of holiness and piety,<ref>{{cite web|title=Friends of God {{!}} religious group {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Friends-of-God|access-date=2021-12-13|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|archive-date=25 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211125125434/https://www.britannica.com/event/Friends-of-God|url-status=live}}</ref>

Starting in 1475, an Italian Dominican friar [[Girolamo Savonarola]] was calling for a Christian renewal. Later on, Martin Luther himself read some of the friar's writings and praised him as a martyr and forerunner whose ideas on faith and grace anticipated Luther's own doctrine of justification by faith alone.<ref name=":02">{{cite web|title=Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume VI: The Middle Ages. A.D. 1294–1517 |via=Christian Classics Ethereal Library|url=https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc6/hcc6.iii.x.v.html|access-date=2021-11-17|website=ccel.org|archive-date=17 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117065912/https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc6/hcc6.iii.x.v.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Some of Hus' followers founded the [[Unitas Fratrum]]—"Unity of the Brethren"—which was renewed under the leadership of [[Zinzendorf|Count Nicolaus von Zinzendorf]] in [[Herrnhut]], [[Saxony]], in 1722 after its almost total destruction in the [[Thirty Years' War]] and the [[Counter-Reformation#Politics|Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation")]]. Today, it is usually referred to in English as the [[Moravian Church]] and in German as the [[Moravian Church|Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine]].

In the 15th century, three German theologians anticipated the reformation: [[Wessel Gansfort]], [[Johann Ruchrat von Wesel|Johann Ruchat von Wesel]], and [[Johannes von Goch]]. They held ideas such as [[predestination]], [[sola scriptura]], and the [[church invisible]], and denied the Roman Catholic view on justification and the authority of the Pope, also questioning [[Christian monasticism|monasticism]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume VI: The Middle Ages. A.D. 1294–1517 |via= Christian Classics Ethereal Library|url=https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc6/hcc6.iii.x.iv.html|access-date=2021-11-14|website=ccel.org|archive-date=14 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114121627/https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc6/hcc6.iii.x.iv.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Wessel Gansfort also denied [[transubstantiation]] and anticipated the Lutheran view of justification by faith alone.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2016|title=The forms of communication employed by the Protestant Reformers and especially Luther and Calvin|url=http://www.pharosjot.com/uploads/7/1/6/3/7163688/article_25_vol_98_2017.pdf|journal=Pharos Journal of Theology|volume=98|quote=John of Wessel was one member in the group who attacked indulgences (Reddy 2004:115). The doctrine of justification by faith alone was the teaching of John of Wessel (Kuiper 1982:151). He rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation where it is believed when the priest pronounces the sacraments then the wine and bread is turned into the real body and blood of Christ|access-date=14 December 2021|archive-date=5 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220105230957/http://www.pharosjot.com/uploads/7/1/6/3/7163688/article_25_vol_98_2017.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Reformation proper===
{{Main|Protestant Reformation}}
[[File:HolyRomanEmpire 1618.png|thumb|upright=1.1|Distribution of Protestantism and [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] in Central Europe on the eve of the [[Thirty Years' War]] in 1618]]
{{multiple image
|align=left
|direction=vertical
|width=200
|image1=1491 Henry VIII.jpg
|caption1=[[Henry VIII of England]], known for his role in the [[English Reformation|separation]] of the [[Church of England]] from the [[Catholic Church]]
|image2=JohnKnox.jpg
|caption2=[[John Knox]], who led the [[Reformation in Scotland]], founding [[Presbyterianism]]}}
{{Reformation}}
The [[Protestant Reformation]] began as an attempt to reform the [[Catholic Church]].

On 31 October 1517, known as [[Halloween|All Hallows' Eve]], [[Martin Luther]] allegedly nailed his [[Ninety-five Theses]], also known as the Disputation on the Power of Indulgences, on the door of the [[All Saints' Church, Wittenberg|All Saints' Church]] in [[Wittenberg]], Germany, detailing doctrinal and practical abuses of the Catholic Church, especially the selling of [[indulgence]]s. The theses debated and criticized many aspects of the Church and the papacy, including the practice of [[Purgatory#Protestantism|purgatory]], [[Particular judgment#Reformation concepts|particular judgment]], and the authority of the pope. Luther would later write works against the Catholic devotion to [[Virgin Mary]], the intercession of and devotion to the saints, mandatory clerical celibacy, monasticism, the authority of the pope, the ecclesiastical law, censure and [[excommunication]], the role of secular rulers in religious matters, the relationship between Christianity and the law, good works, and the sacraments.<ref name=Schofield122>Schofield ''Martin Luther'' p. 122</ref>

The [[Reformation]] was a triumph of literacy and the new [[printing press]] invented by [[Johannes Gutenberg]].<ref name=Cameron>Cameron ''European Reformation''{{page needed|date=March 2015}}</ref>{{efn|In the end, while the Reformation emphasis on Protestants reading the Scriptures was one factor in the development of literacy, the impact of printing itself, the wider availability of printed works at a cheaper price, and the increasing focus on education and learning as key factors in obtaining a lucrative post, were also significant contributory factors.<ref name=Pettegree543>Pettegree ''Reformation World'' p. 543</ref>}} Luther's translation of the Bible into German was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy, and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded much of Europe.<ref name=Edwards>Edwards ''Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther''{{page needed|date=March 2015}}</ref>{{efn|In the first decade of the Reformation, Luther's message became a movement, and the output of religious pamphlets in Germany was at its height.<ref name=PettegreeHall786>Pettegree and Hall "Reformation and the Book ''Historical Journal'' p. 786</ref>}}

Following the excommunication of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of [[John Calvin]] were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various groups in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. After the expulsion of its Bishop in 1526, and the unsuccessful attempts of the [[Bern]] reformer [[William Farel]], Calvin was asked to use the organizational skill he had gathered as a student of law to discipline the city of [[Geneva]]. His ''Ordinances of 1541'' involved a collaboration of Church affairs with the city council and consistory to bring morality to all areas of life. After the establishment of the Geneva academy in 1559, Geneva became the unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, providing refuge for Protestant exiles from all over Europe and educating them as Calvinist missionaries. The faith continued to spread after Calvin's death in 1563.

Protestantism also spread from the German lands into France, where the Protestants were nicknamed [[Huguenots]] (a term of somewhat inexplicable origin). Calvin continued to take an interest in the French religious affairs from his base in Geneva. He regularly trained pastors to lead congregations there. Despite heavy persecution, the Reformed tradition made steady progress across large sections of the nation, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment. French Protestantism came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the conversions of nobles during the 1550s. This established the preconditions for a series of conflicts, known as the [[French Wars of Religion]]. The civil wars gained impetus with the sudden death of [[Henry II of France]] in 1559. Atrocity and outrage became the defining characteristics of the time, illustrated at their most intense in the [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]] of August 1572, when the Catholic party annihilated between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots across France. The wars only concluded when [[Henry IV of France]] issued the [[Edict of Nantes]], promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. Catholicism remained the official [[state religion]], and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV's]] [[Edict of Fontainebleau]] which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Catholicism the sole legal religion once again. In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, [[Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg]] declared the [[Edict of Potsdam]], giving free passage to Huguenot refugees. In the late 17th century, many Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies. A significant community in France remained in the [[Cévennes]] region.

Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli. Zwingli was a scholar and preacher, who in 1518 moved to Zurich. Although the two movements agreed on many issues of theology, some unresolved differences kept them separate. A long-standing resentment between the German states and the [[Swiss Confederation]] led to heated debate over how much Zwingli owed his ideas to Lutheranism. The German Prince [[Philip of Hesse]] saw potential in creating an alliance between Zwingli and Luther. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now known as the [[Colloquy of Marburg]], which has become infamous for its failure. The two men could not come to any agreement due to their disputation over one key doctrine.

In 1534, [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]] put an end to all papal jurisdiction in [[England]], after the Pope failed to [[annul]] his marriage to [[Catherine of Aragon]] (due to political considerations involving the Holy Roman Emperor);<ref>William P. Haugaard "The History of Anglicanism I" in ''The Study of Anglicanism'' Stephen Sykes and John Booty (eds) (SPCK 1987) pp. 6–7</ref> this opened the door to reformational ideas. Reformers in the Church of England alternated between sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing into a tradition considered a middle way (''{{lang|la|via media}}'') between the Catholic and Protestant traditions. The English Reformation followed a particular course. The different character of the [[English Reformation]] came primarily from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of Henry VIII. King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy recognized Henry as ''the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England''. Between 1535 and 1540, under [[Thomas Cromwell]], the policy known as the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]] was put into effect. Following a brief Catholic restoration during the reign of Mary I, a loose consensus developed during the reign of [[Elizabeth I]]. The [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]] largely formed Anglicanism into a distinctive church tradition. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism on the one hand and Catholicism on the other. It was relatively successful until the Puritan Revolution or [[English Civil War]] in the 17th century.

The success of the Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation") on the Continent and the growth of a [[Puritans|Puritan party]] dedicated to further Protestant reform polarized the [[Elizabethan Age]]. The early Puritan movement was a movement for reform in the Church of England whose proponents desired for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially that of Geneva. The later Puritan movement, often referred to as [[dissenters]] and [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|nonconformists]], eventually led to the formation of various Reformed denominations.

The [[Scottish Reformation]] of 1560 decisively shaped the [[Church of Scotland]].<ref>Article 1, of the [[Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland]] 1921 states 'The Church of Scotland adheres to the Scottish Reformation'.</ref> The Reformation in Scotland culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along Reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. John Knox is regarded as the leader of the Scottish Reformation. The [[Scottish Reformation Parliament]] of 1560 repudiated the pope's authority by the [[Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560]], forbade the celebration of the Mass and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith. It was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony under the regime of the regent [[Mary of Guise]], who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent [[Mary, Queen of Scots|daughter]].

Some of the most important activists of the Protestant Reformation included [[Jacobus Arminius]], [[Theodore Beza]], [[Martin Bucer]], [[Andreas von Carlstadt]], [[Heinrich Bullinger]], [[Balthasar Hubmaier]], [[Thomas Cranmer]], [[William Farel]], [[Thomas Müntzer]], [[Laurentius Petri]], [[Olaus Petri]], [[Philipp Melanchthon]], [[Menno Simons]], [[Louis de Berquin]], [[Primož Trubar]] and [[John Smyth (Baptist minister)|John Smyth]].

In the course of this religious upheaval, the [[German Peasants' War]] of 1524–25 swept through the [[Bavaria]]n, [[Thuringia]]n and [[Swabia]]n principalities. After the [[Eighty Years' War]] in the [[Low Countries]] and the [[French Wars of Religion]], the confessional division of the states of the Holy Roman Empire eventually erupted in the [[Thirty Years' War]] between 1618 and 1648. It devastated much of [[Early Modern history of Germany|Germany]], killing between 25% and 40% of its population.<ref>"[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195896/history-of-Europe/58335/Demographics#ref=ref310375 History of Europe – Demographics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723052625/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195896/history-of-Europe/58335/Demographics#ref=ref310375 |date=23 July 2013 }}". Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> The main tenets of the [[Peace of Westphalia]], which ended the Thirty Years' War, were:
* All parties would now recognize the [[Peace of Augsburg]] of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism. (the principle of ''[[cuius regio, eius religio]]'')
* Christians living in principalities where their denomination was ''not'' the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.
* The treaty also effectively ended the papacy's pan-European political power. [[Pope Innocent X]] declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his bull ''{{lang|la|Zelo Domus Dei}}''. European sovereigns, Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.<ref name=ODCCWestphalia>Cross, (ed.) "Westphalia, Peace of" ''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''</ref>

{{multiple image
| align = center
| total_width = 700
| direction = vertical

| image1 = The Protestant Reformation.svg
| caption1 = Peak of the [[Reformation]] and beginning of the Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation") (1545–1620)

| image2 = The Counterreformation.svg
| caption2 = End of the Reformation and Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation") (1648)

| footer = Religious situation in Europe, late 16th and early to mid-17th century}}

===Post-Reformation===
{{See also|Great Awakening|Azusa Street Revival}}
[[File:1839-meth.jpg|thumb|An 1839 [[Methodism|Methodist]] camp meeting during the [[Second Great Awakening]] in the U.S.]]

The Great Awakenings were periods of rapid and dramatic religious revival in Anglo-American religious history.

The [[First Great Awakening]] was an evangelical and revitalization movement that swept through Protestant Europe and [[British America]], especially the [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]] in the 1730s and 1740s, leaving a permanent impact on [[Protestantism in the United States|American Protestantism]]. It resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ. Pulling away from ritual, ceremony, sacramentalism and hierarchy, it made Christianity intensely personal to the average person by fostering a deep sense of spiritual conviction and redemption, and by encouraging introspection and a commitment to a new standard of personal morality.<ref>Thomas S. Kidd, ''The Great Awakening: The Roots of Evangelical Christianity in Colonial America'' (2009)</ref>

The [[Second Great Awakening]] began around 1790. It gained momentum by 1800. After 1820, membership rose rapidly among [[Baptist]] and [[Methodism|Methodist]] congregations, whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the late 1840s. It has been described as a reaction against skepticism, [[deism]], and [[rationalism]], although why those forces became pressing enough at the time to spark revivals is not fully understood.<ref>[[Nancy Cott]], "Young Women in the Great Awakening in New England", Feminist Studies 3, no. 1/2 (Autumn 1975): 15.</ref> It enrolled millions of new members in existing [[evangelical]] denominations and led to the formation of new denominations.

The [[Third Great Awakening]] refers to a hypothetical historical period that was marked by religious activism in [[American history]] and spans the late 1850s to the early 20th century.<ref>William G. McLoughlin, ''Revivals Awakenings and Reform'' (1980)</ref> It affected [[pietistic]] Protestant denominations and had a strong element of social activism.<ref>[[Mark A. Noll]], ''A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada'' (1992) pp. 286–310</ref> It gathered strength from the [[postmillennial]] belief that the [[Second Coming]] of Christ would occur after mankind had reformed the entire earth. It was affiliated with the [[Social Gospel]] Movement, which applied Christianity to social issues and gained its force from the Awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement. New groupings emerged, such as the [[Holiness movement|Holiness]], [[Church of the Nazarene|Nazarene]], and [[Christian Science]] movements.<ref name=Fogel>Robert William Fogel, ''The Fourth Great Awakening and the Future of Egalitarianism'' (2000)</ref>

The [[Fourth Great Awakening]] was a Christian religious awakening that some scholars—most notably, [[Robert Fogel]]—say took place in the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s, while others look at the era following [[World War II]]. The terminology is controversial. Thus, the idea of a Fourth Great Awakening itself has not been generally accepted.<ref>Robert William Fogel (2000), ''The Fourth Great Awakening & the Future of Egalitarianism''; see the review by Randall Balmer, ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'' 2002 33(2): 322–325</ref>

In 1814, [[Réveil|Le Réveil]] swept through Calvinist regions in Switzerland and France.

In 1904, a [[1904–1905 Welsh revival|Protestant revival in Wales]] had a tremendous impact on the local population. A part of British modernization, it drew many people to churches, especially Methodist and Baptist ones.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gibbard |first1=Noel |title=Fire on the Altar: A History and Evaluation of the 1904–05 Welsh Revival |date=2005 |publisher=[[Bryntirion Press]] |location=Bridgend |isbn=978-1850492115}}</ref>

A noteworthy development in 20th-century Protestant Christianity was the rise of the modern [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal movement]]. Sprung from Methodist and [[John Wesley|Wesleyan]] roots, it arose out of meetings at an urban mission on [[Azusa Street]] in Los Angeles. From there it spread around the world, carried by those who experienced what they believed to be miraculous moves of God there. These Pentecost-like manifestations have steadily been in evidence throughout history, such as seen in the two Great Awakenings. Pentecostalism, which in turn birthed the [[Charismatic movement]] within already established denominations, continues to be an important force in [[Western Christianity]].

In the United States and elsewhere in the world, there has been a marked rise in the [[Evangelicalism|evangelical wing]] of Protestant denominations, especially those that are more exclusively evangelical, and a corresponding decline in the [[Mainline Protestant|mainstream liberal churches]]. In the post–[[World War I]] era, [[Liberal Christianity]] was on the rise, and a considerable number of seminaries held and taught from a liberal perspective as well. In the post–[[World War II]] era, the trend began to swing back towards the conservative camp in America's seminaries and church structures.

In Europe, there has been a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towards [[secularism]]. The [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] is largely responsible for the spread of secularism.
Some scholars debate the link between Protestantism and the rise of secularism, and take as argument the wide-ranging freedom in Protestant-majority countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.patheos.com/blogs/geneveith/2012/03/has-lutheranism-caused-secularism/|title=Has Lutheranism caused secularism?|last=Cranach|date=22 March 2012|access-date=28 June 2015|archive-date=30 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630182929/http://www.patheos.com/blogs/geneveith/2012/03/has-lutheranism-caused-secularism/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the sole example of France demonstrates that even in Catholic-majority countries, the overwhelming impact of the Enlightenment has brought even stronger secularism and freedom of thought five centuries later. It is more reliable to consider that the Reformation influenced the critical thinkers of the subsequent centuries, providing intellectual, religious, and philosophical ground on which future philosophers could extend their criticism of the church, of its theological, philosophical, social assumptions of the time. One should be reminded though that initial philosophers of the Enlightenment were defending a Christian conception of the world, but it was developed together with a fierce and decisive criticism of the Church, its politics, its ethics, its worldview, its scientific and cultural assumptions, leading to the devaluation of all forms of institutionalized Christianity, which extended over the centuries.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.cairn.info/pouvoir-et-religion-en-europe--9782200272135-page-209.htm |title=Chapitre 6 – Les Lumières, ou la sécularisation de l'État |publisher=Cairn.info |date=2016|isbn=978-2200272135 |accessdate=2022-09-22}}</ref>

==Radical Reformation==
{{Main|Radical Reformation}}
[[File:Täuferdisputation 1525.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Dissatisfaction with the outcome of a disputation in 1525 prompted [[Swiss Brethren]] to part ways with [[Huldrych Zwingli]]]]
Unlike mainstream [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]], [[Calvinist]] and Zwinglian movements, the [[Radical Reformation]], which had no state sponsorship, generally abandoned the idea of the "Church visible" as distinct from the "Church invisible". It was a rational extension of the state-approved Protestant dissent, which took the value of independence from constituted authority a step further, arguing the same for the civic realm. The Radical Reformation was non-mainstream, though in parts of Germany, Switzerland and Austria, a majority would sympathize with the Radical Reformation despite the intense persecution it faced from both Catholics and Magisterial Protestants.<ref name=horsch>{{cite book|last=Horsch|first=John|author-link=John Horsch|title=Mennonites in Europe|date=1995|publisher=Herald Press|isbn=978-0836113952|page=299}}</ref>

The early [[Anabaptists]] believed that their reformation must purify not only theology but also the actual lives of Christians, especially their political and social relationships.<ref name="ReferenceA">Gonzalez, ''A History of Christian Thought'', 88.</ref> Therefore, the church should not be supported by the state, neither by tithes and taxes, nor by the use of the sword; [[Christianity]] was a matter of individual conviction, which could not be forced on anyone, but rather required a personal decision for it.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Protestant ecclesial leaders such as [[Balthasar Hubmaier|Hubmaier]] and [[Melchior Hoffman|Hofmann]] preached the invalidity of infant baptism, advocating baptism as following conversion ([[Believers baptism|"believer's baptism"]]) instead. This was not a doctrine new to the reformers, but was taught by earlier groups, such as the [[Catharism|Albigenses]] in 1147. Though most of the Radical Reformers were Anabaptist, some did not identify themselves with the mainstream Anabaptist tradition. [[Thomas Müntzer]] was involved in the [[German Peasants' War]]. [[Andreas Karlstadt]] disagreed theologically with Huldrych Zwingli and Martin Luther, teaching nonviolence and refusing to baptize infants while not rebaptizing adult believers.<ref name=GAMEO-Karlstadt>{{cite web|last=Hein|first=Gerhard|title=Karlstadt, Andreas Rudolff-Bodenstein von (1486–1541)|url=http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Karlstadt,_Andreas_Rudolff-Bodenstein_von_(1486-1541)|website=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online|access-date=19 April 2014|archive-date=24 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424213846/https://gameo.org/index.php?title=Karlstadt,_Andreas_Rudolff-Bodenstein_von_(1486-1541)|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Kaspar Schwenkfeld]] and [[Sebastian Franck]] were influenced by [[German mysticism]] and [[Spiritualism (movement)|spiritualism]].

In the view of many associated with the Radical Reformation, the [[Magisterial Reformation]] had not gone far enough. Radical Reformer, [[Andreas Karlstadt|Andreas von Bodenstein Karlstadt]], for example, referred to the Lutheran theologians at [[Wittenberg]] as the "new papists".<ref>[http://www.reformationhappens.com/movements/magisterial/ The Magisterial Reformation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704053158/http://www.reformationhappens.com/movements/magisterial/ |date=4 July 2007 }}</ref> Since the term "magister" also means "teacher", the Magisterial Reformation is also characterized by an emphasis on the authority of a teacher. This is made evident in the prominence of Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli as leaders of the reform movements in their respective areas of ministry. Because of their authority, they were often criticized by Radical Reformers as being too much like the Roman Popes. A more political side of the Radical Reformation can be seen in the thought and practice of [[Hans Hut]], although typically Anabaptism has been associated with pacifism.

Anabaptism in shape of its various diversification such as the [[Amish]], [[Mennonites]] and [[Hutterites]] came out of the Radical Reformation. Later in history, [[Schwarzenau Brethren]], and the [[Apostolic Christian Church]] would emerge in Anabaptist circles.

==Denominations==
{{See also|List of Christian denominations#Protestant|List of the largest Protestant churches}}

Protestants refer to specific groupings of congregations or churches that share in common foundational doctrines and the name of their groups as [[List of Christian Denominations#Protestant|denominations]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QkhVtAEwZckC&pg=PA135|title=Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1996–1997|date=1996|publisher=Diane Publishing|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0788129056|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523002953/https://books.google.com/books?id=QkhVtAEwZckC&pg=PA135|url-status=live}}</ref> The term denomination (national body) is to be distinguished from branch (denominational family; tradition), communion (international body) and congregation (church). An example (this is no universal way to classify Protestant churches, as these may sometimes vary broadly in their structures) to show the difference:

:Branch/denominational family/tradition: [[Methodism]]
::Communion/international body: [[World Methodist Council]]
:::Denomination/national body: [[United Methodist Church]]
::::Congregation/church: [[First United Methodist Church (Paintsville, Kentucky)]]

Protestants reject the [[Catholic Church]]'s doctrine that it is the [[one true church]], with some teaching belief in the ''invisible church'', which consists of all who profess faith in Jesus Christ.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.antiochian.org/node/17076|title=An Orthodox Response to the Recent Roman Catholic Declaration on the Nature of the Church|publisher=Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese|website=www.antiochian.org|access-date=28 July 2014|archive-date=2 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140802015235/http://antiochian.org/node/17076|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Lutheranism|Lutheran Church]] traditionally sees itself as the "main trunk of the historical Christian Tree" founded by Christ and the Apostles, holding that during the Reformation, the [[Holy See|Church of Rome]] fell away.<ref name="Remensnyder1893">{{cite book |author1=Junius Benjamin Remensnyder |title=The Lutheran Manual |date=1893 |publisher=Boschen & Wefer Company |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rWA3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA12 |language=English |access-date=27 April 2021 |archive-date=27 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427020003/https://books.google.com/books?id=rWA3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA12 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Frey1918">{{cite book |last=Frey |first=H. |title=Is One Church as Good as Another? |publisher=[[The Lutheran Witness]] |year=1918 |volume=37 |pages=82–83 |language=English |quote=There can only be one ''true'' visible Church. ...Only that one is the true visible Church which teaches and confesses the entire doctrine of the Word of God in all its purity, and in whose midst the Sacraments are duly administered according to Christ's institution. Of all Churches, this can only be said of our Lutheran Church.}}</ref> Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. Because the five solas are the main tenets of the Protestant faith, [[non-denominational]] groups and organizations are also considered Protestant.

Various [[Christian ecumenism|ecumenical movements]] have attempted cooperation or reorganization of the various divided Protestant denominations, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions, as there is no overarching authority to which any of the churches owe allegiance, which can authoritatively define the faith. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith while differing in many secondary doctrines, although what is major and what is secondary is a matter of idiosyncratic belief.

Several countries have [[state religion|established]] their [[national church]]es, linking the ecclesiastical structure with the state. Jurisdictions where a Protestant denomination has been established as a state religion include several [[Nordic countries]]; Denmark (including Greenland),<ref name=DenmarkConstitution>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/da00000_.html|title=ICL > Denmark > Constitution|website=www.servat.unibe.ch|access-date=24 July 2014|archive-date=10 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710092702/http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/da00000_.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[the Faroe Islands]] ([[Church of the Faroe Islands|its church]] being independent since 2007),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.folkakirkjan.fo/default.aspx?pageid=6235&sectionid=207|title=Føroyska kirkjan|website=Fólkakirkjan|access-date=24 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308090058/http://www.folkakirkjan.fo/default.aspx?pageid=6235&sectionid=207|archive-date=8 March 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> Iceland<ref name=IcelandConstitution>[http://www.government.is/constitution/ Constitution of the Republic of Iceland] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040211190819/http://www.government.is/constitution/ |date=11 February 2004 }}: Article 62, [http://www.government.is/ Government of Iceland] .</ref> and Norway<ref name="abcnyheter">[http://www.abcnyheter.no/nyheter/080410/losere-band-men-fortsatt-statskirke Løsere bånd, men fortsatt statskirke] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108043939/http://www.abcnyheter.no/nyheter/080410/losere-band-men-fortsatt-statskirke|date=8 January 2014}}, ABC Nyheter</ref><ref>[http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/norge/1.8076910 Staten skal ikke lenger ansette biskoper] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418121937/http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/norge/1.8076910 |date=18 April 2012 }}, NRK</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://fritanke.no/index.php?page=vis_nyhet&NyhetID=8840|title=Ingen avskaffelse: Slik blir den nye statskirkeordningen|first=Human-Etisk|last=Forbund|date=15 May 2012|access-date=24 July 2014|archive-date=20 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120093721/https://fritanke.no/index.php?page=vis_nyhet&NyhetID=8840|url-status=live}}</ref> have established [[Lutheranism|Evangelical Lutheran]] churches. [[Tuvalu]] has [[Church of Tuvalu|the only established church in Reformed tradition]] in the world, while [[Tonga]]—[[Free Wesleyan Church of Tonga|in the Methodist tradition]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reformiert-online.net/adressen/detail.php?id=13338&lg=eng|title=Address data base of Reformed churches and institutions|first=Christoph|last=Fasse|website=www.reformiert-online.net|access-date=24 July 2014|archive-date=8 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708165003/http://www.reformiert-online.net/adressen/detail.php?id=13338&lg=eng|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Church of England]] is the officially established religious institution in England,<ref name=Eberle>{{cite book|title=Church and State in Western Society|first=Edward J.|last=Eberle|publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.]]|year=2011|isbn=978-1-4094-0792-8|page=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oYkzkVc_sG0C&pg=PA2|quote=The Church of England later became the official state church, with the monarch supervising church functions.|access-date=30 December 2019|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523002945/https://books.google.com/books?id=oYkzkVc_sG0C&pg=PA2|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Fox>{{cite book|title=A World Survey of Religion and the State|first=Jonathan|last=Fox|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-521-88131-9|page=120|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rE0NcgxNaKEC&pg=PA120|quote=The Church of England (Anglican) and the Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) are the official religions of the UK.|access-date=30 December 2019|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523002951/https://books.google.com/books?id=rE0NcgxNaKEC&pg=PA120|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Ferrante>{{cite book|title=Sociology: A Global Perspective|first=Joan|last=Ferrante|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-8400-3204-1|page=408|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AwnIIXI6y38C&pg=PA408|quote=the Church of England [Anglican], which remains the official state church|access-date=30 December 2019|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523002953/https://books.google.com/books?id=AwnIIXI6y38C&pg=PA408|url-status=live}}</ref> and also the [[Mother Church]] of the worldwide [[Anglican Communion]].

In 1869, Finland was the first Nordic country to [[disestablishment|disestablish]] [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland|its Evangelical Lutheran church]] by introducing the Church Act.{{efn|Finland's State Church was the [[Church of Sweden]] until 1809. As an autonomous Grand Duchy under Russia 1809–1917, Finland retained the Lutheran State Church system, and a state church separate from Sweden, later named the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland]], was established. It was detached from the state as a separate judicial entity when the new church law came to force in 1869. After Finland had gained independence in 1917, religious freedom was declared in the constitution of 1919 and a separate law on religious freedom in 1922. Through this arrangement, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland lost its position as a state church but gained a constitutional status as a national church alongside the [[Finnish Orthodox Church]], whose position, however, is not codified in the constitution.}} Although the church still maintains a special relationship with the state, it is not described as a [[state religion]] in the [[Constitution of Finland|Finnish Constitution]] or other laws passed by the [[Finnish Parliament]].<ref name=FinlandConstitution>{{cite web|url=http://servat.unibe.ch/icl/fi00000_.html|title=ICL > Finland > Constitution|website=servat.unibe.ch|access-date=24 July 2014|archive-date=23 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180123122238/http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/fi00000_.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2000, Sweden was the second Nordic country to do so.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iclrs.org/content/blurb/files/Sweden.1.pdf|title=Maarit Jänterä-Jareborg: Religion and the Secular State in Sweden|access-date=23 July 2014|archive-date=10 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110072754/http://www.iclrs.org/content/blurb/files/Sweden.1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

===United and uniting churches===
{{Main|United and uniting churches}}
{{See also|Continuing churches}}
[[File:Union luthercalvin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Glass window in the town church of [[Wiesloch]] featuring [[Martin Luther]] and [[John Calvin]] commemorating the 1821 union of [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] and [[Calvinism|Reformed]] churches in the [[Grand Duchy of Baden]]]]
United and uniting churches are churches formed from the merger or other form of union of two or more different Protestant denominations.

Historically, unions of Protestant churches were enforced by the state, usually in order to have a stricter control over the religious sphere of its people, but also for other organizational reasons. As modern [[Christian ecumenism]] progresses, unions between various Protestant traditions are becoming more and more common, resulting in a growing number of united and uniting churches. Some of the recent major examples are the [[Church of North India]] (1970), [[United Protestant Church of France]] (2013), and the [[Protestant Church in the Netherlands]] (2004). As mainline Protestantism shrinks in [[Europe]] and [[North America]] due to the rise of [[secularism]] or in areas where Christianity is a minority religion as with the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Reformed church|Reformed]], [[Anglican]], and [[Lutheran]] denominations merge, often creating large nationwide denominations. The phenomenon is much less common among [[evangelical]], [[Nondenominational Christianity|nondenominational]] and [[charismatic]] churches as new ones arise and plenty of them remain independent of each other.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}

What is perhaps the oldest official united church is found in [[Germany]], where the [[Protestant Church in Germany]] is a federation of [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]], United ([[Prussian Union of churches|Prussian Union]]), and [[Reformed churches]], a union dating back to 1817. The first of the series of unions was at a synod in [[Idstein]] to form the [[Protestant Church in Hesse and Nassau]] in August 1817, commemorated in naming the church of Idstein [[Unionskirche, Idstein|Unionskirche]] one hundred years later.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nassau-info.de/geschichte-jb-kirche.htm |title=Staatlicher Dirigismus und neue Gläubigkeit (Die Kirche im Herzogtum Nassau) |publisher=Nassau-info.de |language=de |access-date=27 May 2016 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234050/http://www.nassau-info.de/geschichte-jb-kirche.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Around the world, each united or uniting church comprises a different mix of predecessor Protestant denominations. Trends are visible, however, as most united and uniting churches have one or more predecessors with heritage in the [[Calvinism|Reformed tradition]] and many are members of the [[World Alliance of Reformed Churches]].

==Major branches==
Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the Reformation, today regarded as branches. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning individual denominations. Due to the earlier stated multitude of [[List of Christian denominations|denominations]], this section discusses only the largest denominational families, or branches, widely considered to be a part of Protestantism. These are, in alphabetical order: [[Adventism|Adventist]], [[Anglican]], [[Baptist]], [[Calvinism|Calvinist (Reformed)]], [[Hussite]], [[Lutheran]], [[Methodist]], [[Pentecostal]], [[Plymouth Brethren]] and [[Quaker]]. A small but historically significant [[Anabaptist]] branch is also discussed.

The chart below shows the mutual relations and historical origins of the main Protestant denominational families, or their parts. Due to factors such as [[Counter-Reformation#Politics|Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation")]] and the legal principle of ''[[Cuius regio, eius religio]]'', many people lived as [[Nicodemite]]s, where their professed religious affiliations were more or less at odds with the movement they sympathized with. As a result, the boundaries between the denominations do not separate as cleanly as this chart indicates. When a population was suppressed or persecuted into feigning an adherence to the dominant faith, over the generations they continued to influence the church they outwardly adhered to.

Because Calvinism was not specifically recognized in the Holy Roman Empire until the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, many Calvinists lived as [[Crypto-Calvinists]]. Due to Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation") related suppressions in Catholic lands during the 16th through 19th centuries, many Protestants lived as [[crypto-protestantism|Crypto-Protestants]]. Meanwhile, in Protestant areas, Catholics sometimes lived as [[crypto-papist]]s, although in continental Europe emigration was more feasible so this was less common.
[[File:Protestant branches.svg|thumb|upright=2.95|center|Historical chart of the main branches of Protestantism]]

===Adventism===
{{Main|Adventism}}
Adventism began in the 19th century in the context of the [[Second Great Awakening]] revival in the [[United States]]. The name refers to belief in the imminent [[Second Coming of Christ|Second Coming (or "Second Advent") of Jesus Christ]]. [[William Miller (preacher)|William Miller]] started the Adventist movement in the 1830s. His followers became known as [[Millerism|Millerites]].<ref name="Bergman">{{cite book |surname=Bergman |given=Jerry |year=1995 |chapter=The Adventist and Jehovah's Witness Branch of Protestantism |editor-surname=Miller |editor-given=Timothy |editor-link=Timothy Miller |title=America's Alternative Religions |publisher=SUNY Press |place=Albany, NY |pages=33–46 |isbn=978-0-7914-2397-4 |chapter-url={{Google books|id=og_u0Re1uwUC|plainurl=y|page=33|keywords=|text=}} |url={{Google books|id=og_u0Re1uwUC|plainurl=y}} |url-status=live |archive-date=2020-07-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724210513/https://books.google.com/books?id=og_u0Re1uwUC}}</ref>

Although the Adventist churches hold much in common, their [[Christian theology|theologies]] differ on whether the [[Intermediate state (Christianity)|intermediate state]] is [[Soul sleep|unconscious sleep]] or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is [[annihilationism|annihilation]] or eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether or not the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of Daniel 8<ref>{{bibleverse ||Daniel|8|NKJV}}</ref> refers to the one in [[heavenly sanctuary|heaven]] or one on earth.<ref name="Handbook">{{Citation | section = Adventist and Sabbatarian (Hebraic) Churches | pages = 256–276 | first1 = Frank S | last1 = Mead | first2 = Samuel S | last2 = Hill | first3 = Craig D | last3 = Atwood | title = Handbook of Denominations in the United States | edition = 12th | place = Nashville | publisher = Abingdon Press}}</ref> The movement has encouraged the examination of the whole [[Bible]], leading Seventh-day Adventists and some smaller Adventist groups to observe the [[Sabbath in Seventh-day Adventism|Sabbath]]. The [[General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists]] has compiled that church's core beliefs in [[the 28 Fundamental Beliefs]] (1980 and 2005), which use Biblical references as justification.

In 2010, Adventism claimed some 22 million believers scattered in various independent churches.<ref name="Christianity report">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf|title=Christianity report|access-date=2 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101114257/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf|archive-date=1 November 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> The largest church within the movement—the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]]—has more than 18 million members.
<gallery>
File:James and Ellen White.jpg|[[James Springer White]] and his wife, [[Ellen G. White]] founded the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]].
File:Mozambique baptism1.JPG|An [[Adventism|Adventist]] pastor baptizes a young man in [[Mozambique]]
File:Loma Linda University Church 01.jpg|[[Loma Linda University]], a Seventh-day Adventist Church in [[Loma Linda, California|Loma Linda, California, United States]]
</gallery>

===Anabaptism===
{{Main|Anabaptism}}
Anabaptism traces its origins to the [[Radical Reformation]]. Anabaptists believe in delaying [[baptism]] until the candidate confesses his or her faith. Although some consider this movement to be an offshoot of Protestantism, others see it as a distinct one.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.cbc4me.org/articles/Baptist/04-McGrath.pdf | title = CBC 4 me | contribution = Neither Catholic nor Protestant | first = William | last = McGrath | url-status=dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161227060547/http://www.cbc4me.org/articles/Baptist/04-McGrath.pdf | archive-date = 27 December 2016 | df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | chapter-url = http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/gilbert/15.html | title = The Anabaptists and the Reformation | chapter = 15 The Radicals of the Reformation | first = William | last = Gilbert | access-date = 4 June 2015 | archive-date = 6 January 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190106004243/http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/gilbert/15.html | url-status = live }}</ref> The [[Amish]], [[Hutterites]], and [[Mennonites]] are direct descendants of the movement. [[Schwarzenau Brethren]], [[Bruderhof]], and the [[Apostolic Christian Church]] are considered later developments among the Anabaptists.

The name ''Anabaptist'', meaning "one who baptizes again", was given to them by their persecutors in reference to the practice of re-baptizing converts who already had been baptized as infants.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Anabaptist | title = Online Etymological Dictionary | orig-year = 2001 | year = 2010 | first = Douglas | last = Harper | contribution = Anabaptist | access-date = 25 April 2011 | archive-date = 6 August 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110806065325/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Anabaptist | url-status = live }}</ref> Anabaptists required that baptismal candidates be able to make their own confessions of faith and so rejected [[infant baptism|baptism of infants]]. The early members of this movement did not accept the name ''Anabaptist'', claiming that since infant baptism was unscriptural and null and void, the baptizing of believers was not a re-baptism but in fact their first real baptism. As a result of their views on the nature of baptism and other issues, Anabaptists were heavily persecuted during the 16th century and into the 17th by both [[Magisterial Reformation|Magisterial Protestants]] and Catholics. While most Anabaptists adhered to a [[Sermon on the Mount#Analysis and interpretation|literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount]], which precluded taking oaths, participating in military actions, and participating in civil government, some who practiced re-baptism felt otherwise.<ref group = "lower-alpha">For example, the [[Münster Rebellion|followers of Thomas Müntzer]] and [[Balthasar Hubmaier]].</ref> They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative [[Amish]], [[Mennonites]], and [[Hutterites]] and some historians tend to consider them as outside of true Anabaptism. Anabaptist reformers of the Radical Reformation are divided into Radical and the so-called Second Front. Some important Radical Reformation theologians were [[John of Leiden]], [[Thomas Müntzer]], [[Kaspar Schwenkfeld von Ossig|Kaspar Schwenkfeld]], [[Sebastian Franck]], [[Menno Simons]]. Second Front Reformers included [[Hans Denck]], [[Conrad Grebel]], [[Balthasar Hubmaier]] and [[Felix Manz]]. Many Anabaptists today still use the ''[[Ausbund]]'', which is the oldest hymnal still in continuous use.
<gallery>
File:Dirk.willems.rescue.ncs.jpg|[[Dirk Willems]] saves his pursuer. This act of mercy led to his recapture, after which he was burned at the stake.
File:Lancaster County Amish 03.jpg|An [[Amish]] family in a horse-drawn square buggy in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania|Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, United States]]
File:Alexanderwohl-church.jpg|[[Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church]] in rural [[Goessel, Kansas|Goessel, Kansas, United States]].
</gallery>

===Anglicanism===
{{Main|Anglicanism}}
[[Anglicanism]] consists of the [[Church of England]] and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures.<ref name="cofe">{{cite web|url=http://www.cofe.anglican.org/faith/anglican/|title=What it means to be an Anglican|publisher=Church of England|access-date=16 March 2009|archive-date=30 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830191043/http://www.churchofengland.org/our-faith/being-an-anglican.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> The word ''Anglican'' originates in ''{{lang|la|ecclesia anglicana}}'', a [[medieval Latin]] phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the ''English Church''. There is no single "Anglican Church" with universal juridical authority, since each national or regional church has full [[autonomy]]. As the name suggests, the communion is an association of churches in [[full communion]] with the [[archbishop of Canterbury]]. The great majority of Anglicans are members of churches which are part of the international [[Anglican Communion]],<ref name="acomm">{{cite web| url=http://www.anglicancommunion.org/ | title=The Anglican Communion official website – homepage | access-date=16 March 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090319004737/http://www.anglicancommunion.org/| archive-date= 19 March 2009 | url-status=live}}</ref> which has 85 million adherents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anglicancommunion.org/tour/index.cfm|title=Member Churches|first=Anglican Communion|last=Office|website=www.anglicancommunion.org|access-date=4 June 2015|archive-date=7 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307165129/http://www.anglicancommunion.org/tour/index.cfm|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Church of England]] declared its independence from the Catholic Church at the time of the [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]].<ref name="CTS">{{Cite book|last=Green |first=Jonathon |author-link=Jonathon Green |title=Chasing the Sun: Dictionary Makers and the Dictionaries They Made|year=1996 |edition=1st US |publisher=[[Henry Holt (publisher)|Henry Holt]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8050-3466-0 |pages=58–59 |chapter=Chapter 2: The Middle Ages}}</ref> Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Reformed tradition. These reforms were understood by one of those most responsible for them, the then archbishop of Canterbury, [[Thomas Cranmer]], as navigating a middle way between two of the emerging Protestant traditions, namely Lutheranism and Calvinism.<ref>[[Diarmaid MacCulloch]], ''Thomas Cranmer: A Life'', Yale University Press, p. 617 (1996).</ref> By the end of the century, the retention in Anglicanism of many traditional liturgical forms and of the episcopate was already seen as unacceptable by those promoting the most developed Protestant principles.

Unique to Anglicanism is the ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'', the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries. While it has since undergone many revisions and Anglican churches in different countries have developed other service books, the Book of Common Prayer is still acknowledged as one of the ties that bind the Anglican Communion together.
<gallery>
File:Thomas Cranmer by Gerlach Flicke.jpg|[[Thomas Cranmer]], one of the most influential figures in shaping Anglican theology and self-identity.
File:Book of Common Prayer 1760.jpg|The various editions of the ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'' contain the words of structured services of worship in the Anglican Church.
File:Westminster abbey west.jpg|[[Coronation of the British monarch|British coronations]] are held in [[Westminster Abbey]], a [[royal peculiar]] under the direct jurisdiction of the [[Monarch of the United Kingdom|monarch]].
</gallery>

===Baptists===
{{Main|Baptists}}
[[Baptists]] subscribe to a doctrine that baptism should be performed only for professing believers ([[believer's baptism]], as opposed to [[infant baptism]]), and that it must be done by complete [[Immersion baptism|immersion]] (as opposed to [[affusion]] or [[Aspersion|sprinkling]]). Other [[Dogma|tenets]] of Baptist churches include [[soul competency]] (liberty), [[salvation]] through [[Sola fide|faith alone]], [[Sola scriptura|Scripture alone]] as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local [[Congregationalist polity|congregation]]. Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, [[pastor]]s and [[deacon]]s. Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity.<ref name="Baptist Origins">Buescher, John. "[http://teachinghistory.org/history-content/ask-a-historian/22329 Baptist Origins] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920071007/http://www.teachinghistory.org/history-content/ask-a-historian/22329 |date=20 September 2015 }}." [http://www.teachinghistory.org/ Teaching History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926205612/https://teachinghistory.org/history-content/ask-a-historian/24484 |date=26 September 2018 }}. Retrieved 23 September 2011.</ref>

Diverse from their beginning, those identifying as Baptists today differ widely from one another in what they believe, how they worship, their attitudes toward other Christians, and their understanding of what is important in Christian discipleship.<ref name="Shurden turning">{{cite web |last=Shurden |first=Walter |title=Turning Points in Baptist History |publisher=The Center for Baptist Studies, Mercer University |location=Macon, GA |year=2001 |access-date=16 January 2010 |url=http://www.centerforbaptiststudies.org/pamphlets/style/turningpoints.htm |archive-date=10 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100710040901/http://www.centerforbaptiststudies.org/pamphlets/style/turningpoints.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Historians trace the earliest church labeled ''Baptist'' back to 1609 in [[Amsterdam]], with [[English Dissenters|English Separatist]] [[John Smyth (Baptist minister)|John Smyth]] as its pastor.<ref name="Gourley">Gourley, Bruce. "A Very Brief Introduction to Baptist History, Then and Now." ''The Baptist Observer.''</ref> In accordance with his reading of the [[New Testament]], he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults.<ref name="ODCC self" /> Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christ's atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to [[Election (Christianity)|the elect]]. In 1638, [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]] established the [[first Baptist church in America|first Baptist congregation in the North American colonies]]. In the mid-18th century, the [[First Great Awakening]] increased Baptist growth in both New England and the South.<ref name="EBOself">{{cite web |url-status=live |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/52364/Baptist |title=Baptist |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426193803/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/52364/Baptist |archive-date=26 April 2015 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |first=Winthrop S. |last=Hudson}}</ref> The [[Second Great Awakening]] in the South in the early 19th century increased church membership, as did the preachers' lessening of support for [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolition]] and [[manumission]] of [[slavery]], which had been part of the 18th-century teachings. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent.<ref name="ODCC self" />

The [[Baptist World Alliance]] reports more than 41 million members in more than 150,000 congregations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bwanet.org/bwa.php?site=Resources&id=19 |title=Member Body Statistics |date=30 May 2008|publisher=Baptist World Alliance |access-date= 6 May 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100401120508/http://www.bwanet.org/bwa.php?site=Resources&id=19| archive-date= 1 April 2010 | url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2002, there were over 100 million Baptists and Baptistic group members worldwide and over 33 million in North America.<ref name="ODCC self">{{citation|contribution=Baptists|editor-last=Cross|editor-first=FL|title=The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church|place=New York|publisher= Oxford University Press|year=2005}}</ref> The largest Baptist association is the [[Southern Baptist Convention]], with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 14 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bpnews.net/52962/acp--giving-increases-baptisms-attendance-continue-decline|title=SBC: Giving increases while baptisms continue decline|date=23 May 2019 |publisher=Baptist Press|access-date=24 September 2019|archive-date=25 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525014132/http://www.bpnews.net/52962/acp--giving-increases-baptisms-attendance-continue-decline|url-status=live |first=Carol |last=Pipes}}</ref>
<gallery>
File:Roger Williams statue by Franklin Simmons.jpg|[[Roger Williams]] was an early proponent of [[religious freedom]] and the [[separation of church and state]].
File:Baptism by immersion.jpg|Baptists subscribe to a doctrine that baptism should be performed [[believer's baptism|only for professing believers]].
File:First Baptist Church in America from Angell St 2.jpg|The [[First Baptist Church in America]]. Baptists are roughly one-third of [[Protestantism in the United States|U.S. Protestants]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/appendix-b-classification-of-protestant-denominations/|title=Appendix B: Classification of Protestant Denominations|date=12 May 2015 |website=Pew Research Center |access-date=28 December 2015|archive-date=5 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205153232/https://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/appendix-b-classification-of-protestant-denominations/|url-status=live}}</ref>
</gallery>

===Calvinism===
{{Main|Reformed Christianity}}
[[Calvinism]], also called the Reformed tradition, was advanced by several theologians such as [[Martin Bucer]], [[Heinrich Bullinger]], [[Peter Martyr Vermigli]], and Huldrych Zwingli, but this branch of Christianity bears the name of the French reformer John Calvin because of his prominent influence on it and because of his role in the confessional and ecclesiastical debates throughout the 16th century.

This term also currently refers to the doctrines and practices of the [[Reformed churches]] of which Calvin was an early leader. Less commonly, it can refer to the individual teaching of Calvin himself. The particulars of Calvinist theology may be stated in a number of ways. Perhaps the best known summary is contained in the [[five points of Calvinism]], though these points identify the Calvinist view on [[Christian soteriology|soteriology]] rather than summarizing the system as a whole. Broadly speaking, Calvinism stresses the sovereignty or rule of God in all things—in salvation but also in all of life. This concept is seen clearly in the doctrines of [[predestination (Calvinism)|predestination]] and [[total depravity]].

The biggest Reformed association is the [[World Communion of Reformed Churches]] with more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wcrc.ch/theology/ |title=Theology and Communion |website=World Communion of Reformed Churches |access-date=5 December 2013 |archive-date=20 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220021929/http://wcrc.ch/theology/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://wcrc.ch/wcrc-member-churches/ |title=Member Churches |website=World Communion of Reformed Churches |access-date=5 December 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140412134752/http://wcrc.ch/wcrc-member-churches/ |archive-date=12 April 2014}}</ref> There are more conservative Reformed federations like the [[World Reformed Fellowship]] and the [[International Conference of Reformed Churches]], as well as [[List of Reformed denominations|independent churches]].

<gallery>
File:John Calvin - Young.jpg|[[John Calvin]]'s theological thought influenced a variety of [[Congregational church|Congregational]], [[Continental Reformed church|Continental Reformed]], [[United and uniting churches|United]], [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]], and other Reformed churches.
File:Lorimer, Ordination.jpg|''The Ordination of Elders in a Scottish Kirk'' by [[John Henry Lorimer]], 1891.
File:First_Congregational_Church,_Cheshire_CT.jpg|A Congregational church in [[Cheshire, Connecticut|Cheshire, Connecticut, United States]]
</gallery>

===Hussites===
[[Hussitism]] follows the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus, who became the best-known representative of the [[Bohemian Reformation]] and one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. An early hymnal was the hand-written ''[[Jistebnice hymn book]]''. This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthened [[Czech people|Czech]] national awareness. Among present-day Christians, Hussite traditions are represented in the [[Moravian Church]], [[Unity of the Brethren (Texas)|Unity of the Brethren]] and the [[Czechoslovak Hussite Church]].<ref name="Nĕmec">Nĕmec, Ludvík "The Czechoslovak heresy and schism: the emergence of a national Czechoslovak church", American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1975, {{ISBN|0-87169-651-7}}</ref>
<gallery>
File:Friedensthal Moravian.jpg|Friedensthal Moravian Church [[Christiansted, United States Virgin Islands|Christiansted, St Croix, USVI]] founded in 1755.
File:Lovefeast at Bethania Moravian Church.jpg|A Moravian diener serves bread to fellow members of her congregation during the celebration of a [[lovefest]] (2015).
</gallery>

===Lutheranism===
{{Main|Lutheranism}}
[[Lutheranism]] identifies with the [[theology of Martin Luther]], a [[Germans|German]] monk and priest, [[Ecclesiology|ecclesiastical]] reformer, and theologian.

Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification "by [[Sola gratia|grace alone]] through [[Sola fide|faith alone]] on the basis of [[Sola scriptura|Scripture alone]]", the doctrine that scripture is the final authority on all matters of faith, rejecting the assertion made by Catholic leaders at the [[Council of Trent]] that authority comes from both Scriptures and [[Sacred tradition|Tradition]].<ref>''Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent'', Fourth Session, Decree on Sacred Scripture (Denzinger 783 [1501]; Schaff 2:79–81). For a history of the discussion of various interpretations of the Tridentine decree, see Selby, Matthew L., ''The Relationship Between Scripture and Tradition according to the Council of Trent'', unpublished Master's thesis, University of St Thomas, July 2013.</ref> In addition, Lutherans accept the teachings of the first four [[ecumenical councils]] of the undivided Christian Church.<ref name="Olson1999">{{cite book|last=Olson|first=Roger E.|title=The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform|date=1999|publisher=InterVarsity Press|isbn=978-0830815050|page=[https://archive.org/details/storyofchristian00olso/page/158 158]|quote=The magisterial Protestant denominations such as major Lutheran, Reformed and Anglican (Church of England, Episcopalian) denominations recognize only the first four as having any special authority, and even they are considered subordinate to Scripture.|url=https://archive.org/details/storyofchristian00olso/page/158}}</ref><ref name="Kelly2009">{{cite book|last=Kelly|first=Joseph Francis|title=The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church: A History|year=2009|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0814653760|page=64|quote=The Church of England and most Lutheran churches accept the first four councils as ecumenical; Orthodox churches accept the first seven.}}</ref>

Unlike the Reformed tradition, Lutherans retain many of the [[Christian liturgy|liturgical]] practices and [[Sacraments#Lutheran teaching|sacramental]] teachings of the pre-Reformation Church with an emphasis on the [[Sacramental union|Eucharist]], or Lord's Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in [[Scholastic Lutheran Christology|Christology]], the purpose of [[Law and Gospel#Lutheran and Reformed differences|God's Law]], divine [[Irresistible grace#Lutheran|grace]], the concept of [[Perseverance of the saints#Lutheran view|perseverance of the saints]], and [[Predestination#Lutheranism|predestination]].

Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism. With approximately 80 million adherents,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lutheran.org.nz/about-us/|title=About Us|website=Lutheran Church of New Zealand|access-date=5 March 2015|archive-date=1 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150401192904/http://www.lutheran.org.nz/about-us/|url-status=live}}</ref> it constitutes the third most common Protestant confession after historically [[Pentecostal|Pentecostal denominations]] and [[Anglicanism]].<ref name="pewforum1"/> The [[Lutheran World Federation]], the largest global communion of Lutheran churches represents over 72 million people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lutheranworld.org/content/member-churches|title=Member Churches – The Lutheran World Federation|date=19 May 2013|access-date=5 March 2015|archive-date=29 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129164641/http://www.lutheranworld.org/content/member-churches|url-status=live}}</ref> Both of these figures miscount Lutherans worldwide as many members of more generically Protestant LWF member church bodies do not self-identify as Lutheran or attend congregations that self-identify as Lutheran.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lutheranworld.org/lwf/index.php/member-statistics-2011.html |access-date=22 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120715071837/http://www.lutheranworld.org/lwf/index.php/member-statistics-2011.html |archive-date=15 July 2012 |title=Survey Shows 70.5 Million Members in LWF-Affiliated Churches |website=The Lutheran World Federation}}</ref> Additionally, there are other international organizations such as the [[Global Confessional and Missional Lutheran Forum]], [[International Lutheran Council]] and the [[Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference]], as well as [[List of Lutheran denominations|Lutheran denominations]] that are not necessarily a member of an international organization.
<gallery>
File:LutherRose.jpg|[[Luther rose|Luther's rose seal]], a symbol of [[Lutheranism]]
File:EinFesteBurg.jpg|Luther composed hymns still used today, including "[[A Mighty Fortress Is Our God]]"
File:Lucas Cranach (I) - The Law and the Gospel.jpg|[[Moses]] and [[Elijah]] direct the sinner looking for salvation to the [[Christian Cross|Cross]] in this painting illustrating Luther's [[Theology of the Cross]], as opposed to a Theology of Glory.
File:Revelation Turku Finland Travel Photography (257758059).jpeg|Altar of the [[Turku Cathedral]], the [[Mother church|matrice]] of the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland]]
</gallery>

===Methodism===
{{Main|Methodism}}
[[Methodism]] identifies principally with the [[Wesleyanism|theology]] of [[John Wesley]]—an [[Anglican]] priest and evangelist. This evangelical movement originated as a [[Christian revival|revival]] within the 18th-century [[Church of England]] and became a separate Church following Wesley's death. Because of vigorous missionary activity, the movement spread throughout the [[British Empire]], the United States, and beyond, today claiming approximately 80 million adherents worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|title=Member Churches|url=http://worldmethodistcouncil.org/about/member-churches/|publisher=World Methodist Council|access-date=17 June 2013|archive-date=3 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303123750/http://worldmethodistcouncil.org/about/member-churches/|url-status=live}}</ref> Originally it appealed especially to laborers and slaves.

[[Soteriology|Soteriologically]], most Methodists are [[Arminian]], emphasizing that Christ accomplished salvation for every human being, and that humans must exercise an act of the will to receive it (as opposed to the traditional Calvinist doctrine of [[monergism]]). Methodism is traditionally [[low church]] in liturgy, although this varies greatly between individual congregations; the Wesleys themselves greatly valued the Anglican liturgy and tradition. Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition; John Wesley's brother, [[Charles Wesley|Charles]], was instrumental in writing much of the [[hymnody]] of the Methodist Church,<ref name="Methodist Hymnbody">{{Cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qScPAAAAIAAJ|title = A Collection of Hymns, for the use of the people called Methodists|publisher = T. Blanshard|year = 1820|access-date = 27 June 2015|archive-date = 23 May 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200523003032/https://books.google.com/books?id=qScPAAAAIAAJ|url-status = live}}</ref> and many other eminent hymn writers come from the Methodist tradition.
<gallery>
File:John Wesley by George Romney crop.jpg|[[John Wesley]], the primary founder of [[Methodism]]
File:Methodistcommunion3.jpg|A [[United Methodist Church|United Methodist]] elder celebrating the [[Eucharist]]
File:Methodist Central Hall.JPG|[[Methodist Central Hall, Westminster|Methodist Central Hall]] in [[Westminster]], London
File:Free Methodist Hymnal, ca 1908.jpg|A [[hymnal]] of the [[Free Methodist Church]], a Methodist denomination aligned with the [[holiness movement]]
File:Armee-du-salut.jpg|A night shelter of [[The Salvation Army]] in [[Geneva]], Switzerland
</gallery>
The Holiness movement refers to a set of practices surrounding the doctrine of Christian perfection that emerged within 19th-century Methodism, along with a number of evangelical denominations and [[parachurch organization]]s (such as [[camp meeting]]s).<ref name="Winn"/> There are an estimated 12 million adherents in denominations aligned with the Wesleyan-holiness movement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oikoumene.org/en/church-families/holiness-churches|title=Holiness churches|website=oikoumene.org|access-date=31 May 2015|archive-date=25 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225232719/https://www.oikoumene.org/en/church-families/holiness-churches/|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Free Methodist Church]], the [[Salvation Army]] and the [[Wesleyan Church|Wesleyan Methodist Church]] are notable examples, while other adherents of the Holiness Movement remained within mainline Methodism, e.g. the [[United Methodist Church]].<ref name="Winn">{{cite book |last1=Winn |first1=Christian T. Collins |title=From the Margins: A Celebration of the Theological Work of Donald W. Dayton |date=2007 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1630878320 |page=115 |language=en|quote=In addition to these separate denominational groupings, one needs to give attention to the large pockets of the Holiness movement that have remained within the United Methodist Church. The most influential of these would be the circles dominated by Asbury College and Asbury Theological Seminary (both in Wilmore, KY), but one could speak of other colleges, innumerable local campmeetings, the vestiges of various local Holiness associations, independent Holiness oriented missionary societies and the like that have had great impact within United Methodism. A similar pattern would exist in England with the role of Cliff College within Methodism in that context.}}</ref>

===Pentecostalism===
{{Main|Pentecostalism}}
[[Pentecostalism]] is a movement that places special emphasis on a direct personal experience of [[God in Christianity|God]] through the [[baptism with the Holy Spirit]]. The term ''Pentecostal'' is derived from [[Pentecost]], the [[Greek language|Greek]] name for the Jewish [[Feast of Weeks]]. For Christians, this event commemorates the descent of the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]] upon the followers of [[Jesus Christ]], as described in the [[Second Chapter of Acts|second chapter]] of the [[Book of Acts]].

This branch of Protestantism is distinguished by belief in the baptism with the Holy Spirit as an experience separate from [[Conversion to Christianity|conversion]] that enables a Christian to live a life empowered by and filled with the Holy Spirit. This empowerment includes the use of [[spiritual gift]]s such as [[speaking in tongues]] and [[divine healing]]—two other defining characteristics of Pentecostalism. Because of their commitment to biblical authority, spiritual gifts, and the miraculous, Pentecostals tend to see their movement as reflecting the same kind of spiritual power and teachings that were found in the [[Apostolic Age]] of the [[early church]]. For this reason, some Pentecostals also use the term ''Apostolic'' or ''[[Full Gospel]]'' to describe their movement.

Pentecostalism eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations, including large groups such as the Assemblies of God and the Church of God in Christ, both in the United States and elsewhere. There are over 279 million Pentecostals worldwide, and the movement is growing in many parts of the world, especially the [[global South]]. Since the 1960s, Pentecostalism has increasingly gained acceptance from other Christian traditions, and Pentecostal beliefs concerning Spirit baptism and spiritual gifts have been embraced by non-Pentecostal Christians in Protestant and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] churches through the [[Charismatic Movement]]. Together, [[Charismatic Christianity|Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity]] numbers over 500 million adherents.<ref name=PewGlobalChristianity67>{{Citation | publisher=[[Pew Forum]] on Religion and Public Life | date=19 December 2011 | url=http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Christian/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf | title=Global Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population | page=67 | access-date=25 June 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723134849/http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Christian/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf | archive-date=23 July 2013 | url-status=dead}}</ref>
<gallery>
File:Charlesparham.png|[[Charles Fox Parham]], who associated [[Speaking in tongues|glossolalia]] with the baptism in the [[Holy Spirit]]
File:RH Worship Team.jpg|A contemporary Christian worship at Rock Harbor Church in [[Costa Mesa, California|Costa Mesa, California, United States]]
File:Ravensburg Freie Christengemeinde Saal.jpg|A [[Pentacostalism|Pentecostal]] church in [[Ravensburg]], Germany
</gallery>

===Plymouth Brethren===
The [[Plymouth Brethren]] are a [[conservative]], low church, evangelical denomination, whose history can be traced to [[Dublin]], Ireland, in the late 1820s, originating from [[Anglicanism]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Shawn |last=Abigail |date=June 2006 |title=What is the history of the 'Brethren'? |url=http://brethrenonline.org/faqs/Brethren.htm#3 |website="Plymouth Brethren" FAQ |access-date=12 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160518150855/http://brethrenonline.org/faqs/Brethren.htm#3 |archive-date=18 May 2016}}</ref><ref name=mackay1981>{{Cite book |first=Harold |last=Mackay |title=Assembly Distinctives |publisher=Everyday Publications |location=Scarborough, Toronto |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-88873-049-7 |oclc=15948378 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/assemblydistinct0000mack}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> Among other beliefs, the group emphasizes ''{{lang|la|sola scriptura}}''. Brethren generally see themselves not as a denomination, but as a network, or even as a collection of overlapping networks, of like-minded independent churches. Although the group refused for many years to take any denominational name to itself—a stance that some of them still maintain—the title ''The Brethren'', is one that many of their number are comfortable with in that the Bible designates all believers as ''brethren''.

===Quakerism===
[[Quakers]], or Friends, are members of a family of religious movements collectively known as the Religious Society of Friends. The central unifying doctrine of these movements is the [[priesthood of all believers]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Quaker Faith & Practice|url=http://qfp.quakerweb.org.uk/qfp11-01.html|publisher=Britain Yearly Meeting|access-date=5 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719234710/http://qfp.quakerweb.org.uk/qfp11-01.html|archive-date=19 July 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Baltimore Yearly Meeting Faith & Practice 2011 draft|url=http://www.bym-rsf.org/publications/fandp/11worship.html#vocal|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413213340/http://www.bym-rsf.org/publications/fandp/11worship.html#vocal|archive-date=13 April 2012}}</ref> Many Friends view themselves as members of a Christian denomination. They include those with [[evangelicalism|evangelical]], [[Holiness movement|holiness]], [[Mainline Protestant|liberal]], and traditional [[Conservative Friends|conservative Quaker]] understandings of [[Christianity]]. Unlike many other groups that emerged within Christianity, the Religious Society of Friends has actively tried to avoid [[creed]]s and hierarchical structures.<ref>[http://www.quaker.org/quest/ministers-1.htm The Trouble With "Ministers"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019042905/http://www.quaker.org/quest/ministers-1.htm |date=19 October 2013}} by Chuck Fager gives an overview of the hierarchy Friends had until it began to be abolished in the mid-eighteenth century. Retrieved 25 April 2014.</ref>
<gallery>
File:Fox by Lely 2.jpg|[[George Fox]] was an [[English dissenter]] and a founder of the [[Religious Society of Friends]], commonly known as the Quakers or Friends.
</gallery>

===Other Protestants===
{{Main|List of Christian denominations#Protestant}}
There are many other Protestant denominations that do not fit neatly into the mentioned branches, and are far smaller in membership. Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves simply as "Christians" or "[[born-again]] Christians". They typically distance themselves from the [[confessionalism (religion)|confessionalism]] or creedalism of other Christian communities<ref>Confessionalism is a term employed by historians to refer to "the creation of fixed identities and systems of beliefs for separate churches which had previously been more fluid in their self-understanding, and which had not begun by seeking separate identities for themselves—they had wanted to be truly Catholic and reformed." (MacCulloch, ''The Reformation: A History'', p. xxiv.)</ref> by calling themselves "[[Non-denominational Christianity|non-denominational]]" or "[[evangelical]]". Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations.<ref name="Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life / U.S. Religious Landscape Survey">{{cite web|url = http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-appendix3.pdf|title = Classification of Protestant Denominations|publisher = Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life / U.S. Religious Landscape Survey|access-date = 27 September 2009|archive-date = 26 February 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150226092522/http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-appendix3.pdf|url-status = live}}</ref>

Although [[Unitarianism]] developed from the Protestant Reformation,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/unitarianism/ataglance/glance.shtml|publisher=BBC – Religions|title=Unitarianism: Unitarianism at a glance|access-date=1 August 2017|archive-date=9 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809050504/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/unitarianism/ataglance/glance.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> it is excluded from Protestantism due to its [[Nontrinitarian]] theological nature.<ref name="willsky" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanunitarian.org/AUCChristian.htm|title=Unitarian Christianity|website=www.americanunitarian.org|access-date=1 August 2017|archive-date=5 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805035309/http://americanunitarian.org/AUCChristian.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Unitarianism has been popular in the [[Transylvania|region of Transylvania]] within today's [[Romania]], England, and the United States.<ref name="willsky" /> It originated almost simultaneously in Transylvania and the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]].

[[Spiritual Christianity]] is the group of Russian movements ([[Doukhobors]] and others), so-called folk Protestants. Their origins are varied: some were influenced by western Protestants, others from disgust of the behavior of official [[Russian Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] priests.<ref>{{cite journal |given=Nikolai |surname=Berdyaev |authorlink=Nikolai Berdyaev |translator=S. Janos |title=Spiritual Christianity and Sectarianism in Russia |journal=Russkaya Mysl ("Russian Thought") |date=1999 |orig-year=1916 |url=http://www.berdyaev.com/berdiaev/berd_lib/1916_252a.html |via=Berdyaev.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |year=2006 |given=Koozma J. |surname=Tarasoff |title=Spirit Wrestlers: Doukhobor Pioneers' Strategies for Living |chapter-url=http://www.spirit-wrestlers.com/excerpts/2006_Doukhobors_Overview.html |chapter=Overview |place=Ottawa |publisher=Legas |isbn=1-896031-12-9}}</ref>

[[Messianic Judaism]] is a movement of the Jews and non-Jews, which arose in the 1960s within Evangelical Protestantism and absorbed elements of the [[Jewish Christian|messianic]] traditions in Judaism.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Melton |editor-given=J. Gordon |editor-link=J. Gordon Melton |year=2005 |entry=Messianic Judaism |title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism |place=New York |publisher=Facts On File |series=Encyclopedia of World Religions |page=373 |entry-url={{Google books|id=bW3sXBjnokkC|plainurl=y|page=373|keywords=|text=}} |url={{Google books|id=bW3sXBjnokkC|plainurl=y}} |isbn=0-8160-5456-8 |quote="Messianic Judaism is a Protestant movement that emerged in the last half of the 20th century among believers who were ethnically Jewish but had adopted an Evangelical Christian faith.…By the 1960s, a new effort to create a culturally Jewish Protestant Christianity emerged among individuals who began to call themselves Messianic Jews."}}</ref>

==Interdenominational movements==
[[Image:Messiah Cathedral in Night.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|An [[Indonesian Reformed Evangelical Church]] [[megachurch]]]]
There are also Christian movements which cross denominational lines and even branches, and cannot be classified on the same level previously mentioned forms. [[Evangelicalism]] is a prominent example. Some of those movements are active exclusively within Protestantism, some are Christian-wide. Transdenominational movements are sometimes capable of affecting parts of the Catholic Church, such as does it the [[Charismatic Movement]], which aims to incorporate beliefs and practices similar to [[Pentecostals]] into the various branches of Christianity. [[Neo-charismatic churches]] are sometimes regarded as a subgroup of the Charismatic Movement. Both are put under a common label of [[Charismatic Christianity]] (so-called ''Renewalists''), along with Pentecostals. [[Nondenominational Christianity|Nondenominational churches]] and various [[house church]]es often adopt, or are akin to one of these movements.

[[Megachurch]]es are usually influenced by interdenominational movements. Globally, these large congregations are a significant development in Protestant Christianity. In the United States, the phenomenon has more than quadrupled in the past two decades.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&page=tflynn_26_5|title=Redirect|website=www.secularhumanism.org|access-date=10 February 2016|archive-date=19 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619065320/http://secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&page=tflynn_26_5|url-status=live}}</ref> It has since spread worldwide.

The chart below shows the mutual relations and historical origins of the main interdenominational movements and other developments within Protestantism.

[[File:Interdenominational movements & other Protestant developments.svg|thumb|upright=2.95|center|Links between interdenominational movements and other developments within Protestantism]]

===Evangelicalism===
{{Main|Evangelicalism}}
Evangelicalism, or evangelical Protestantism,{{efn|Primarily in the United States, where Protestants are usually placed in one of two categories—[[Mainline Protestant|Mainline]] or Evangelical.}} is a worldwide, transdenominational movement which maintains that the essence of [[the gospel]] consists in the doctrine of salvation by [[Grace in Christianity|grace]] through [[Faith in Christianity|faith]] in [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]]'s [[atonement in Christianity|atonement]].<ref name=Oxf>{{cite book|title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary | year=1978| publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | url=http://www.operationworld.org/glossary | title=Operation World | access-date=4 June 2015 | archive-date=18 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200118153156/http://operationworld.org/glossary | url-status=live }}</ref>

Evangelicals are [[Christians]] who believe in the centrality of the conversion or [[Born again (Christianity)|"born again" experience]] in receiving salvation, believe in the authority of the Bible as God's revelation to humanity and have a strong commitment to evangelism or sharing the Christian message.

It gained great momentum in the 18th and 19th centuries with the emergence of [[Methodism]] and the [[Great Awakenings]] in Britain and North America. The origins of Evangelicalism are usually traced back to the English [[Methodist]] movement, [[Nicolaus Zinzendorf]], the [[Moravian Church]], [[Lutheran]] [[pietism]], [[Presbyterianism]] and [[Puritanism]].<ref name="Christianity report"/> Among leaders and major figures of the Evangelical Protestant movement were [[John Wesley]], [[George Whitefield]], [[Jonathan Edwards (theologian)|Jonathan Edwards]], [[Billy Graham]], [[Harold John Ockenga]], [[John Stott]] and [[Martyn Lloyd-Jones]].

There are an estimated 285,480,000 Evangelicals, corresponding to 13% of the [[Christianity by country|Christian population]] and 4% of the [[World population|total world population]]. The Americas, Africa and Asia are home to the majority of Evangelicals. The United States has the largest concentration of Evangelicals.<ref name="How Many Evangelicals Are There">{{Citation | title=How Many Evangelicals Are There? | url=http://www.wheaton.edu/ISAE/Defining-Evangelicalism/How-Many-Are-There/ | publisher=Institute for the Study of American Evangelicals | place=Wheaton College | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130062242/http://www.wheaton.edu/ISAE/Defining-Evangelicalism/How-Many-Are-There | archive-date=30 January 2016 | df=dmy-all}}</ref> Evangelicalism is gaining popularity both in and outside the English-speaking world, especially in Latin America and the [[developing world]].
<gallery>
File:Wilberforce john rising.jpg|[[William Wilberforce]], a British evangelical abolitionist
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 194-0798-29, Düsseldorf, Veranstaltung mit Billy Graham.jpg|[[Billy Graham]], a prominent evangelical revivalist, preaching in [[Duisburg|Duisburg, Germany]] in 1954
File:Église Nouvelle Vie culte.jpg|Worship service at [[Église Nouvelle vie]], an evangelical [[Pentacostalism|Pentecostal]] church in [[Longueuil]], Canada
File:Hämeenlinnan Vapaaseurakunta.jpg|An Evangelical Protestant church in [[Hämeenlinna]], Finland
</gallery>

===Charismatic movement===
{{Main|Charismatic movement}}
[[File:Hillsong Church Konstanz 2018.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Hillsong Church, an evangelical charismatic church, in [[Konstanz]], Germany]]
The Charismatic movement is the international trend of historically mainstream congregations adopting beliefs and practices similar to [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]]. Fundamental to the movement is the use of [[spiritual gift]]s. Among Protestants, the movement began around 1960.

In the United States, Episcopalian [[Dennis Bennett (priest)|Dennis Bennett]] is sometimes cited as one of the charismatic movement's seminal influence.<ref>{{Citation | first = Randall | last = Balmer | title = Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism: Revised and Expanded Edition | edition = 2nd | place = Waco | publisher = Baylor | year = 2004 | contribution = Charismatic Movement}}</ref> In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Colin Urquhart]], [[Michael Harper (priest)|Michael Harper]], [[David Watson (evangelist)|David Watson]] and others were in the vanguard of similar developments. The [[Massey University|Massey]] conference in New Zealand, 1964 was attended by several Anglicans, including the Rev. Ray Muller, who went on to invite Bennett to New Zealand in 1966, and played a leading role in developing and promoting the ''Life in the Spirit'' seminars. Other Charismatic movement leaders in New Zealand include [[Bill Subritzky]].

Larry Christenson, a Lutheran theologian based in [[San Pedro, California]], did much in the 1960s and 1970s to interpret the charismatic movement for Lutherans. A very large annual conference regarding that matter was held in [[Minneapolis]]. Charismatic Lutheran congregations in Minnesota became especially large and influential; especially "Hosanna!" in Lakeville, and North Heights in St. Paul. The next generation of Lutheran charismatics cluster around the Alliance of Renewal Churches. There is considerable charismatic activity among young Lutheran leaders in California centered around an annual gathering at Robinwood Church in Huntington Beach. [[Richard A. Jensen]]'s ''Touched by the Spirit'' published in 1974, played a major role of the Lutheran understanding to the charismatic movement.

In Congregational and Presbyterian churches which profess a traditionally [[Calvinist]] or [[Reformed theology]] there are differing views regarding present-day [[continuationism|continuation]] or [[cessationism|cessation]] of the gifts (''{{lang|la|charismata}}'') of the Spirit.<ref name="phen">{{Cite book | last1 = Masters | first1 = Peter | last2 = Whitcomb | first2 = John | title = Charismatic Phenomenon| publisher = Wakeman | location = London | page = [https://archive.org/details/charismaticpheno0000mast/page/113 113] | date = 1988 | isbn = 978-1870855013 | url = https://archive.org/details/charismaticpheno0000mast/page/113}}</ref><ref name="epidemic">{{Cite book | last1 = Masters | first1 = Peter | last2 = Wright | first2= Professor Verna| title = Healing Epidemic | publisher = Wakeman Trust | location = London| page = 227 | date = 1988 | isbn = 978-1870855006}}</ref> Generally, however, Reformed charismatics distance themselves from renewal movements with tendencies which could be perceived as overemotional, such as [[Word of Faith]], [[Toronto Blessing]], [[Brownsville Revival]] and [[Lakeland Revival]]. Prominent Reformed charismatic denominations are the [[Sovereign Grace Churches]] and the [[Every Nation]] Churches in the US, in Great Britain there is the [[Newfrontiers]] churches and movement, which leading figure is [[Terry Virgo]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tateville.com/churches.html |title=Reformed and Presbyterian Denominations: A Primer |date=15 February 2014 |website=Tateville |access-date=5 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111183209/http://www.tateville.com/churches.html |archive-date=11 November 2014}}</ref>

A minority of [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]] today are charismatic. They are strongly associated with those holding more [[Progressive Adventism|"progressive" Adventist beliefs]]. In the early decades of the church charismatic or ecstatic phenomena were commonplace.<ref>{{cite web| last = Patrick| first = Arthur| author-link = Arthur Patrick| title = Early Adventist worship, Ellen White and the Holy Spirit: Preliminary Historical Perspectives| website = Spiritual Discernment Conference| publisher = SDAnet AtIssue| date = 25 October 1999 | url = http://www.sdanet.org/atissue/discern/holyspirit.htm| access-date = 15 February 2008| archive-date = 7 October 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181007140636/http://www.sdanet.org/atissue/discern/holyspirit.htm| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last = Patrick| first = Arthur| author-link = Arthur Patrick| title = Later Adventist Worship, Ellen White and the Holy Spirit: Further Historical Perspectives| website = Spiritual Discernment Conference| publisher = SDAnet AtIssue| date = 27 August 1999 | url = http://www.sdanet.org/atissue/discern/flesh.htm| access-date = 15 February 2008| archive-date = 11 October 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181011052704/http://www.sdanet.org/atissue/discern/flesh.htm| url-status = live}}</ref>

===Neo-charismatic churches===
{{Main|Neo-charismatic churches}}
Neo-charismatic churches are a category of churches in the Christian [[Renewal (religion)|Renewal]] movement. Neo-charismatics include the [[Third Wave of the Holy Spirit|Third Wave]], but are broader. Now more numerous than Pentecostals (first wave) and charismatics (second wave) combined, owing to the remarkable growth of [[postdenominational churches|postdenominational]] and independent charismatic groups.<ref name = NIDPCM>{{Citation | editor1-first = Stanley M | editor1-last = Burgess | editor2-first = Eduard M | editor2-last = van der Maas | title = The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements | place = Grand Rapids | publisher = Zondervan | year = 2002 | contribution = Neocharismatics| title-link = The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements}}</ref>

Neo-charismatics believe in and stress the post-Biblical availability of [[gifts of the Holy Spirit]], including [[glossolalia]], healing, and prophecy. They practice laying on of hands and seek the "infilling" of the [[Holy Spirit]]. However, a specific experience of [[baptism with the Holy Spirit]] may not be requisite for experiencing such gifts. No single form, governmental structure, or style of church service characterizes all neo-charismatic services and churches.

Some nineteen thousand denominations, with approximately 295 million individual adherents, are identified as neo-charismatic.<ref>{{Citation | editor1-first = Stanley M | editor1-last = Burgess | editor2-first = Eduard M | editor2-last = van der Maas | title = The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements | place = Grand Rapids | publisher = Zondervan | year = 2002 | pages = 286–287}}</ref>

==Protestant offshoots==
===Arminianism===
{{Main|Arminianism|Remonstrants}}
{{See also|History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate}}
[[File:James Arminius 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Jacobus Arminius]], a [[Dutch Reformed Church]] theologian, whose views influenced parts of Protestantism. A small [[Remonstrants]] community remains in the [[Netherlands]].]]
[[Arminianism]] is based on [[Christian theology|theological]] ideas of the [[Dutch Reformed]] theologian [[Jacobus Arminius]] (1560–1609) and his historic supporters known as [[Remonstrants]]. His teachings held to the [[five solae]] of the Reformation, but they were distinct from particular teachings of [[Martin Luther]], [[Huldrych Zwingli]], [[John Calvin]], and other [[Protestant Reformers]]. Jacobus Arminius was a student of [[Theodore Beza]] at the Theological University of Geneva. Arminianism is known to some as a [[soteriological]] diversification of [[Calvinism]].<ref>"Chambers Biographical Dictionary", ed. Magnus Magnusson (Chambers: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 62.</ref> However, to others, Arminianism is a reclamation of early Church theological consensus.<ref>Kenneth D. Keathley, "The Work of God: Salvation", in ''A Theology for the Church'', ed. Daniel L. Akin (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2007), 703.</ref> Dutch Arminianism was originally articulated in the Remonstrance (1610), a theological statement signed by 45 ministers and submitted to the [[States General of the Netherlands]]. Many Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views on the will of man being freed by grace prior to regeneration, notably the [[Baptists]] in the 16th century,<ref>Robert G. Torbet, ''A History of the Baptists'', third edition</ref> the [[Methodists]] in the 18th century and the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]] in the 19th century.

The original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself are commonly defined as Arminianism, but more broadly, the term may embrace the teachings of [[Hugo Grotius]], [[John Wesley]], and others as well. [[Arminianism#Classical Arminianism|Classical Arminianism]] and [[Wesleyan-Arminianism|Wesleyan Arminianism]] are the two main schools of thought. Wesleyan Arminianism is often identical with Methodism. The two systems of Calvinism and Arminianism share both history and many doctrines, and the [[History of Christianity|history of Christian theology]]. However, because of their differences over the doctrines of divine [[predestination]] and election, many people view these schools of thought as opposed to each other. In short, the difference can be seen ultimately by whether God allows His desire to save all to be resisted by an individual's will (in the Arminian doctrine) or if God's grace is irresistible and limited to only some (in Calvinism). Some Calvinists assert that the Arminian perspective presents a synergistic system of Salvation and therefore is not only by grace, while Arminians firmly reject this conclusion. Many consider the theological differences to be crucial differences in doctrine, while others find them to be relatively minor.<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. ''The Story of Christianity, Vol. Two: The Reformation to the Present Day'' (New York: Harpercollins Publishers, 1985; reprint – Peabody: Prince Press, 2008) 180</ref>

===Pietism===
{{Main|Pietism|Haugean movement}}
[[Pietism]] was an influential movement within [[Lutheranism]] that combined the 17th-century Lutheran principles with the [[Calvinism|Reformed]] emphasis on individual piety and living a vigorous [[Christianity|Christian]] life.<ref>In places, such as parts of England and America, where Pietism was frequently juxtaposed with Catholicism, Catholics also became naturally influenced by Pietism, helping to foster a stronger tradition of congregational hymn-singing, including among Pietists who converted to Catholicism and brought their pietistic inclination with them, such as [[Frederick William Faber]].</ref>

It began in the late 17th century, reached its zenith in the mid-18th century, and declined through the 19th century, and had almost vanished in America by the end of the 20th century. While declining as an identifiable Lutheran group, some of its theological tenets influenced Protestantism generally, inspiring the [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] priest [[John Wesley]] to begin the [[Methodism|Methodist]] movement and [[Alexander Mack]] to begin the [[Schwarzenau Brethren|Brethren]] movement under an influence of [[Anabaptists]].<ref>Meier, Marcus (2008). The Origin of the Schwarzenau Brethren. Philadelphia: Brethren Encyclopedia. p. 144.</ref>

Though Pietism shares an emphasis on personal behavior with the [[Puritan]] movement, and the two are often confused, there are important differences, particularly in the concept of the role of religion in government.<ref>Calvinist Puritans believed that government was ordained by God to enforce Christian behavior upon the world; pietists see the government as a part of the world, and believers were called to voluntarily live faithful lives independent of government.</ref>

<gallery>
File:Philipp Jakob Spener.jpg|[[Philipp Jakob Spener]], a German pioneer and founder of [[Pietism]]
File:Pietism.JPG|Pietism has had a strong cultural influence in [[Scandinavia]]
File:Der breite und der schmale Weg 2008.jpg|''The Broad and the Narrow Way'', an 1866 German Pietist painting
</gallery>

===Puritanism, English dissenters and nonconformists===
{{Main|Puritans|English Dissenters|Independent (religion)|Nonconformist (Protestantism){{!}}Nonconformism|English Presbyterianism|Ecclesiastical separatism|17th-century denominations in England}}
The [[Puritans]] were a group of English Protestants in the [[Christianity in the 16th century|16th]] and [[Christianity in the 17th century|17th centuries]], which sought to purify the [[Church of England]] of what they considered to be Catholic practices, maintaining that the church was only partially reformed. Puritanism in this sense was founded by some of the returning [[Marian exiles|clergy exiled under Mary I]] shortly after the accession of [[Elizabeth I of England]] in 1558, as an activist movement within the [[Church of England]].

Puritans were blocked from changing the established church from within, and were severely restricted in England by laws controlling the practice of religion. Their beliefs, however, were transported by the emigration of congregations to the Netherlands (and later to New England), and by evangelical clergy to Ireland (and later into Wales), and were spread into lay society and parts of the educational system, particularly certain colleges of the [[University of Cambridge]]. The first Protestant sermon delivered in England was in Cambridge, with the pulpit that this sermon was delivered from surviving to today.<ref>{{cite web|title=Latimer's Pulpit|url=https://www.50treasures.divinity.cam.ac.uk/treasure/latimers-pulpit/|access-date=2020-12-30|website=Faculty of Divinity 50 Treasures|archive-date=5 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205203447/https://www.50treasures.divinity.cam.ac.uk/treasure/latimers-pulpit/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2020-06-25|title=Despite Cambridge's Protestant history, Catholic students are at home here|url=https://catholicherald.co.uk/despite-cambridges-protestant-history-catholic-students-are-at-home-here/|access-date=2020-09-21|website=Catholic Herald|language=en-GB|archive-date=27 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927001656/https://catholicherald.co.uk/despite-cambridges-protestant-history-catholic-students-are-at-home-here/|url-status=live}}</ref> They took on distinctive beliefs about clerical dress and in opposition to the [[Episcopal polity|episcopal]] system, particularly after the 1619 conclusions of the [[Synod of Dort]] they were resisted by the English bishops. They largely adopted [[Puritan Sabbatarianism|Sabbatarianism]] in the 17th century, and were influenced by [[millennialism]].

They formed, and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity of [[worship]] and [[doctrine]], as well as personal and group [[pietism|piety]]. Puritans adopted a [[Reformed theology]], but they also took note of radical criticisms of Zwingli in Zurich and Calvin in Geneva. In church polity, some advocated for separation from all other Christians, in favor of autonomous [[gathered church]]es. These separatist and [[independent (religion)|independent]] strands of Puritanism became prominent in the 1640s. Although the [[English Civil War]] (which expanded into the [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]]) began over a contest for political power between the [[King of England]] and the [[House of Commons]], it divided the country along religious lines as [[Episcopalianism|episcopalians]] within the Church of England sided with the Crown and Presbyterians and Independents supported ''Parliament'' (after the defeat of the Royalists, the [[House of Lords]] as well as the Monarch were removed from the political structure of the state to create the [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]]). The supporters of a [[Presbyterian polity]] in the [[Westminster Assembly]] were unable to forge a new English national church, and the Parliamentary [[New Model Army]], which was made up primarily of Independents, under [[Oliver Cromwell]] first purged Parliament, then abolished it and established [[The Protectorate]].

[[English overseas possessions in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms|England's trans-Atlantic colonies in the war]] followed varying paths depending on their internal demographics. In the older colonies, which included [[Virginia]] (1607) and its offshoot [[Bermuda]] (1612), as well as [[Barbados]] and [[Antigua]] in the West Indies (collectively the targets in 1650 of [[An Act for prohibiting Trade with the Barbadoes, Virginia, Bermuda and Antego]]), Episcopalians remained the dominant church faction and the colonies remained Royalist 'til conquered or compelled to accept the new political order. In Bermuda, with control of the local [[Government of Bermuda|government]] and the ''army'' (nine infantry companies of Militia plus [[coastal artillery]]), the Royalists forced Parliament-backing religious Independents into exile to settle the [[Bahamas]] as the [[Eleutheran Adventurers]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Langford Oliver |first=Vere |date=1912 |title=Pym Letters. Caribbeana: Being Miscellaneous papers Relating to the History. Genealogy, Topography, and Antiquities of the British West Indies. Volume II. |location=London |publisher=Mitchell Hughes and Clarke, 140 Wardour Street, W |page=14 |quote=The Government is changed. Within twenty days after his arrival, the Governor called an assembly, pretending thereby to reform certain things amiss. All the ministers in the island, Mr. White, Mr. Goldinge, and Mr. Copeland, were Independents, and they had set up a Congregational Church, of which most gentlemen of Council were members or favourers. The burgesses of this [[House of Assembly of Bermuda|assembly]] were picked out of those who were known to be enemies to that way, and they did not suffer a Roundhead (as they term them) to be chosen.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lefroy |first=Major-General Sir John Henry |date=1981 |title=Memorials of the Discovery and Early Settlement of the Bermudas or Somers Islands 1515-1685, Volume I |location=Bermuda |publisher=The Bermuda Historical Society and The Bermuda National Trust (the first edition having been published in 1877, with funds provided by the Government of Bermuda), printed in Canada by The University of Toronto Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eleuthera-map.com/eleuthera-island.htm |title=Eleuthera Island: History Notes |work=eleuthera-map.com |access-date=2021-10-17 |archive-date=1 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101125402/http://www.eleuthera-map.com/eleuthera-island.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Episcopalian was re-established following the [[Stuart Restoration#Church of England settlement|Restoration]]. A century later, non-conforming Protestants, along with the Protestant refugees from continental Europe, were to be among the primary instigators of the [[American War of Independence|war of secession]] that led to the founding of the United States of America.

<gallery>
File:John.Cotton.cropped.jpg|[[John Cotton (minister)|John Cotton]], who sparked the [[Antinomian Controversy]] with his [[free grace theology]]
File:Landing-Bacon.PNG|[[Pilgrims (Plymouth Colony)|Pilgrim Fathers]] landing at [[Plymouth Rock]] in [[Plymouth, Massachusetts]] in 1620
File:OldShipEntrance.jpg|Built in 1681, the [[Old Ship Church]] in [[Hingham, Massachusetts]] is the oldest church in continuous ecclesiastical use in the United States.<ref>{{Cite news|last = Butterfield|first = Fox|title = The Perfect New England Town|url = https://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/14/travel/the-perfect-new-england-village.html?sec=&spon=|newspaper = [[The New York Times]]|date = 14 May 1989|access-date = 30 May 2010|archive-date = 18 November 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181118230017/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/14/travel/the-perfect-new-england-village.html?sec=&spon=|url-status = live}}</ref>
</gallery>

===Neo-orthodoxy and paleo-orthodoxy===
{{Main|Neo-orthodoxy|Paleo-orthodoxy}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 194-1283-23A, Wuppertal, Evangelische Gesellschaft, Jahrestagung.jpg|upright=1|thumb|[[Karl Barth]], often regarded as the greatest Protestant theologian of the 20th century<ref name = "McGrath2011">{{cite book| first= Alister E| last= McGrath| title= Christian Theology: An Introduction| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bus5TyjTfxYC&pg=PA76| year= 2011| publisher= John Wiley & Sons| isbn= 978-1-4443-9770-3| page= 76| access-date= 27 June 2015| archive-date= 6 September 2015| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150906041426/https://books.google.com/books?id=bus5TyjTfxYC&pg=PA76| url-status= live}}</ref><ref name = "BrownCollinson2012">{{cite book | first1 = Stuart | last1 = Brown | first2 = Diane | last2 = Collinson | first3 = Robert | last3 = Wilkinson | title = Biographical Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Philosophers | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Hz8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA52 | year = 2012 | publisher = Taylor & Francis | isbn = 978-0-415-06043-1 | page = 52 | access-date = 27 June 2015 | archive-date = 6 September 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150906044607/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hz8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA52 | url-status = live }}</ref>]]
A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity along the lines of the [[Christian existentialism]] of [[Søren Kierkegaard]], who attacked the [[Right Hegelians#Hegelian theologians|Hegelian]] state churches of his day for "dead orthodoxy", neo-orthodoxy is associated primarily with [[Karl Barth]], [[Jürgen Moltmann]], and [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]. Neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called "crisis theology", in the existentialist sense of the word crisis, also sometimes called ''neo-evangelicalism'', which uses the sense of "evangelical" pertaining to continental European Protestants rather than American evangelicalism. "Evangelical" was the originally preferred label used by Lutherans and Calvinists, but it was replaced by the names some Catholics used to [[Labelling#Labelling in argumentation|label]] a heresy with the name of its founder.

[[Paleo-orthodoxy]] is a movement similar in some respects to neo-evangelicalism but emphasizing the ancient Christian consensus of the undivided church of the first millennium AD, including in particular the early creeds and church councils as a means of properly understanding the scriptures. This movement is cross-denominational. A prominent theologian in this group is [[Thomas Oden]], a Methodist.

===Christian fundamentalism===
{{Main|Christian fundamentalism}}
In reaction to liberal Bible critique, [[fundamentalism]] arose in the 20th century, primarily in the United States, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism.
Fundamentalist theology tends to stress [[Biblical inerrancy]] and [[Biblical literalism]].

Toward the end of the 20th century, some have tended to confuse evangelicalism and fundamentalism; however, the labels represent very distinct differences of approach that both groups are diligent to maintain, although because of fundamentalism's dramatically smaller size it often gets classified simply as an ultra-conservative branch of evangelicalism.

===Modernism and liberalism===
{{Main|Liberal Christianity}}
Modernism and liberalism do not constitute rigorous and well-defined schools of theology, but are rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology. Its opposition to the fundamentalist teaching resulted in religious debates, such as the [[Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy]] within the [[Presbyterian Church in the United States of America]] in the 1920s.

==Protestant culture==
{{Main|Protestant culture}}
{{multiple image
|align=right
|direction=vertical
|width=200
|image1=2006 Berliner Dom Front.jpg
|caption1=The [[Berlin Cathedral]], a [[United and uniting churches|United Protestant]] cathedral in [[Berlin]]
|image2=Die protestantische Ethik und der 'Geist' des Kapitalismus original cover.jpg
|caption2=[[Max Weber]]'s ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]''}}
Although the [[Reformation]] was a religious movement, it also had a strong impact on all other aspects of life, including marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts.<ref name="Karl Heussi 1956 pp. 317–319"/> Protestant churches reject the idea of a celibate priesthood and thus allow their clergy to marry.<ref name = "Encyclopedia of Protestantism" /> Many of their families contributed to the development of intellectual elites in their countries.<ref>Karl Heussi, ''{{lang|de|Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte}}'', p. 319</ref> Since about 1950, women have entered the ministry in most Protestant churches, and some have assumed leading positions (e.g. [[bishop]]s).

Protestantism has promoted economic growth and entrepreneurship, especially in the period after the [[Scientific Revolution|Scientific]] and the [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cantoni |first=Davide |date=2015 |title=The Economic Effects of the Protestant Reformation: Testing the Weber Hypothesis in the German Lands |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24539263 |journal=Journal of the European Economic Association |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=561–598 |doi=10.1111/jeea.12117 |jstor=24539263 |hdl=10230/11729 |s2cid=7528944 |issn=1542-4766|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait|first=Reinhard|last=Bendix|year=1978|isbn=978-0520031944|page=60|publisher=University of California Press}}</ref> Scholars have identified a positive correlation between the rise of Protestantism and [[human capital]] formation,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Boppart|first1=Timo|last2=Falkinger|first2=Josef|last3=Grossmann|first3=Volker|date=1 April 2014|title=Protestantism and Education: Reading (the Bible) and Other Skills|journal=Economic Inquiry |volume=52|issue=2|pages=874–895|doi=10.1111/ecin.12058|s2cid=10220106|issn=1465-7295|url=https://www.cesifo-group.de/DocDL/cesifo1_wp3314.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.cesifo-group.de/DocDL/cesifo1_wp3314.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Protestant work ethic|work ethic]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schaltegger|first1=Christoph A.|last2=Torgler|first2=Benno|date=1 May 2010|title=Work ethic, Protestantism, and human capital|journal=Economics Letters|volume=107|issue=2|pages=99–101|doi=10.1016/j.econlet.2009.12.037|url=https://eprints.qut.edu.au/32407/1/COVERSHEET_C32407.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://eprints.qut.edu.au/32407/1/COVERSHEET_C32407.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[economic development]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Spater|first1=Jeremy|last2=Tranvik|first2=Isak|date=1 November 2019|title=The Protestant Ethic Reexamined: Calvinism and Industrialization|journal=Comparative Political Studies|volume=52|issue=13–14|pages=1963–1994|doi=10.1177/0010414019830721|s2cid=204438351|issn=0010-4140}}</ref> the rise of early [[experimental science]],<ref>{{cite book | last = Cohen | first = I. Bernard |title = Puritanism and the rise of modern science: the Merton thesis|publisher = Rutgers University Press | location = New Brunswick, New Jersey | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-0-8135-1530-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last = Cohen | first = H. | author-link = H. Floris Cohen | title = The scientific revolution: a historiographical inquiry | publisher = University of Chicago Press | pages = [https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu00cohe/page/320 320–321] | location = Chicago | year = 1994 | isbn = 978-0-226-11280-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu00cohe/page/320 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=2iieLX7nrEAC&dq=Merton+thesis&pg=PA320 Google Print, pp. 320–321]</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Ferngren | first = Gary B. | author-link = Gary B. Ferngren | title = Science and religion: a historical introduction | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | page = 125 | location = Baltimore, Maryland | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-8018-7038-5 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=weOOCfiDhDcC&dq=Merton+thesis&pg=PA125 Google Print, p.125]</ref> and the development of the [[Government|state system]].{{sfn|Becker|Pfaff|Rubin|2016}}

As the Reformers wanted all members of the church to be able to read the Bible, education on all levels was strongly encouraged. By the middle of the eighteenth century, the literacy rate in England was about 60 percent, in Scotland 65 percent, and in Sweden 80 percent.<ref>Heinrich August Winkler (2012), ''{{lang|de|Geschichte des Westens. Von den Anfängen in der Antike bis zum 20. Jahrhundert}}'', Third, Revised Edition, Munich (Germany), p. 233</ref> Colleges and universities were founded. For example, the [[Puritans]] who established [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] in 1628 founded [[Harvard College]] only eight years later. About a dozen other colleges followed in the 18th century, including [[Yale]] (1701). [[Pennsylvania]] also became a center of learning.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), ''History of Religion in the United States'', Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 69–80, 88–89, 114–117, 186–188</ref><ref>M. Schmidt, ''Kongregationalismus'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band III (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 1770</ref>

Members of [[mainline Protestant]] denominations have played [[White Anglo-Saxon Protestant|leadership roles in many aspects of American life]], including politics, business, science, the arts, and education. They founded most of the country's leading institutes of higher education.<ref name=mainline2000>McKinney, William. "Mainline Protestantism 2000." ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'', Vol. 558, Americans and Religions in the Twenty-First Century (July 1998), pp. 57–66.</ref>

===Thought and work ethic===
{{See also|Protestant work ethic}}
The Protestant concept of God and man allows believers to use all their God-given faculties, including the power of reason. That means that they are allowed to explore God's creation and, according to Genesis 2:15, make use of it in a responsible and sustainable way. Thus a cultural climate was created that greatly enhanced the development of the [[humanities]] and the [[sciences]].<ref>[[Gerhard Lenski]] (1963), ''The Religious Factor: A Sociological Study of Religion's Impact on Politics, Economics, and Family Life'', Revised Edition, A Doubleday Anchor Book, Garden City, New York, pp. 348–351</ref> Another consequence of the Protestant understanding of man is that the believers, in gratitude for their election and redemption in Christ, are to follow God's commandments. Industry, frugality, calling, discipline, and a strong sense of responsibility are at the heart of their moral code.<ref>Cf. [[Robert Middlekauff]] (2005), ''The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789'', Revised and Expanded Edition, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-516247-9}}, p. 52</ref><ref>Jan Weerda, ''{{lang|de|Soziallehre des Calvinismus}}'', in ''{{lang|de|Evangelisches Soziallexikon}}'', 3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 934</ref> In particular, Calvin rejected luxury. Therefore, craftsmen, industrialists, and other businessmen were able to reinvest the greater part of their profits in the most efficient machinery and the most modern production methods that were based on progress in the sciences and technology. As a result, productivity grew, which led to increased profits and enabled employers to pay higher wages. In this way, the economy, the sciences, and technology reinforced each other. The chance to participate in the economic success of technological inventions was a strong incentive to both inventors and investors.<ref>[[Eduard Heimann]], ''Kapitalismus'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band III (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 1136–1141</ref><ref>Hans Fritz Schwenkhagen, ''Technik'', in ''Evangelisches Soziallexikon'', 3. Auflage, col. 1029–1033</ref><ref>Georg Süßmann, ''{{lang|de|Naturwissenschaft und Christentum}}'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band IV, col. 1377–1382</ref><ref>C. Graf von Klinckowstroem, ''{{lang|de|Technik. Geschichtlich}}'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 664–667</ref> The [[Protestant work ethic]] was an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinated [[mass action (sociology)|mass action]] that influenced the development of [[capitalism]] and the [[Industrial Revolution]]. This idea is also known as the "Protestant ethic thesis".<ref name="SEP">{{cite web | url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/ | title=Max Weber | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University | website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | date=Fall 2008 | access-date=21 August 2011 | author=Kim, Sung Ho | archive-date=27 May 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527021109/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

However, eminent historian [[Fernand Braudel]] (d. 1985), a leader of the important [[Annales School]] wrote, "all historians have opposed this tenuous theory [the Protestant Ethic], although they have not managed to be rid of it once and for all. Yet it is clearly false. The northern countries took over the place that earlier had been so long and brilliantly been occupied by the old capitalist centers of the Mediterranean. They invented nothing, either in technology or business management."<ref>Braudel, Fernand. 1977. Afterthoughts on Material Civilization and Capitalism. Baltimore: Johns Hopskins University Press.</ref> Social scientist [[Rodney Stark]] moreover comments that "during their critical period of economic development, these northern centers of capitalism were Catholic, not Protestant—the Reformation still lay well into the future",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholiceducation.org/en/controversy/protestant-objections/protestant-modernity.html|title=Protestant Modernity|last=Manager|access-date=17 September 2017|archive-date=20 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120113716/https://www.catholiceducation.org/en/controversy/protestant-objections/protestant-modernity.html|url-status=live}}</ref> while British historian Hugh Trevor-Roper (d. 2003) said, "The idea that large-scale industrial capitalism was ideologically impossible before the Reformation is exploded by the simple fact that it existed."<ref>Trevor-Roper. 2001. The Crisis of the Seventeenth Century. Liberty Fund</ref>

In a [[factor analysis]] of the latest wave of [[World Values Survey]] data, [[Arno Tausch]] ([[Corvinus University of Budapest]]) found that Protestantism emerges to be very close to combining religion and the traditions of [[liberalism]]. The Global Value Development Index, calculated by Tausch, relies on the World Values Survey dimensions such as trust in the state of law, no support for shadow economy, postmaterial activism, support for democracy, a non-acceptance of violence, xenophobia and racism, trust in transnational capital and Universities, confidence in the market economy, supporting gender justice, and engaging in environmental activism, etc.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/pra/mprapa/63349.html|title=Towards new maps of global human values, based on World Values Survey (6) data|first=Arno|last=Tausch|date=31 March 2015|via=ideas.repec.org|journal=Mpra Paper|access-date=27 May 2015|archive-date=14 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214174710/https://ideas.repec.org/p/pra/mprapa/63349.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopalians]] and [[Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)|Presbyterians]], as well as other [[White Anglo-Saxon Protestant|WASPs]], tend to be considerably wealthier<ref name="THE EPISCOPALIANS">{{cite news |author=B. Drummond Ayers Jr. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/04/28/us/the-episcopalians-an-american-elite-with-roots-going-back-to-jamestown.html |title=The Episcopalians: An American Elite with Roots Going Back To Jamestown |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=19 December 2011 |access-date=17 August 2012 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612230306/https://www.nytimes.com/1981/04/28/us/the-episcopalians-an-american-elite-with-roots-going-back-to-jamestown.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and better educated (having [[Academic degree|graduate]] and [[post-graduate]] degrees per capita) than most other religious groups in [[United States]],<ref>Irving Lewis Allen, "WASP – From Sociological Concept to Epithet", ''Ethnicity'', 1975 154+</ref> and are disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of American [[business]],<ref>{{cite journal |first=Andrew |last=Hacker |title=Liberal Democracy and Social Control |journal=[[American Political Science Review]] |year=1957 |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=1009–1026 [p. 1011] |doi=10.2307/1952449 |jstor=1952449|s2cid=146933599 }}</ref> [[law]] and [[politics]], especially the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Baltzell |title=The Protestant Establishment |url=https://archive.org/details/protestantestabl00baltrich |year=1964 |page=[https://archive.org/details/protestantestabl00baltrich/page/9 9]|publisher=New York, Random House }}</ref> Numbers of the most [[Old money|wealthy and affluent American families]] as the [[Vanderbilts]], the [[Astor family|Astors]], [[Rockefeller family|Rockefellers]], [[Du Pont family|Du Ponts]], [[Roosevelt family|Roosevelts]], [[Forbes family|Forbes]], [[Ford family|Fords]], [[Whitney family|Whitneys]], [[Mellon family|Mellons]], the [[Morgan family|Morgans]] and Harrimans are [[Mainline Protestant]] families.<ref name="THE EPISCOPALIANS"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Religion, Art, and Money: Episcopalians and American Culture from the Civil War to the Great Depression|first=Peter|last= W. Williams|year= 2016| isbn= 978-1469626987| page =176|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|quote=The names of fashionable families who were already Episcopalian, like the Morgans, or those, like the Fricks, who now became so, goes on interminably: Aldrich, Astor, Biddle, Booth, Brown, Du Pont, Firestone, Ford, Gardner, Mellon, Morgan, Procter, the Vanderbilt, Whitney. Episcopalians branches of the Baptist Rockefellers and Jewish Guggenheims even appeared on these family trees.}}</ref>

===Science===
{{See also|Merton thesis}}
[[File:Butler Library - 1000px - AC.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Columbia University]], an [[Ivy League]] university in [[New York City]], was initially established by the [[Church of England]].]]
Protestantism has had an important influence on science. According to the [[Merton Thesis]], there was a positive [[correlation]] between the rise of English [[Puritanism]] and German [[Pietism]] on the one hand and early [[experimental science]] on the other.<ref name=sztompka2003>{{cite book|last=Sztompka|first=P.|author-link=Piotr Sztompka|chapter=Chapter 1. Robert K. Merton|title=[Extract from] the Blackwell ... Social Theorists|pages=12–33|publisher= Wiley|date=2003|doi=10.1002/9780470999912.ch2|isbn=978-0470999912|chapter-url=http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9781405105958_chunk_g97814051059584|via=blackwellreference.com}}</ref> The Merton Thesis has two separate parts: Firstly, it presents a theory that science changes due to an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental technique and [[methodology]]; secondly, it puts forward the argument that the popularity of science in 17th-century England and the religious [[demography]] of the [[Royal Society]] (English scientists of that time were predominantly Puritans or other Protestants) can be explained by a [[correlation]] between Protestantism and the scientific values.<ref name=gregory1998>{{cite web|last=Gregory |first=Andrew|year=1998|title=Lecture 14|type=course handout|series=215 – The Scientific Revolution|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/gregory/215/handouts/h14_srel.doc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060513160014/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/gregory/215/handouts/h14_srel.doc|archive-date=2006-05-13}}</ref> Merton focused on English Puritanism and German Pietism as having been responsible for the development of the [[scientific revolution]] of the 17th and 18th centuries. He explained that the connection between [[religious affiliation]] and interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between the [[ascetic]] Protestant values and those of modern science.<ref name=becker1992>{{cite journal|last=Becker|first=George|date=December 1992|title=The Merton thesis: Oetinger and German Pietism, a significant negative case|journal=[[Sociological Forum]]|volume=7|issue=4|pages=642–660|doi=10.1007/bf01112319|s2cid=56239703}}</ref> Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to identify God's influence on the world—his creation—and thus providing a religious justification for scientific research.<ref name=sztompka2003/>

According to ''Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States'' by [[Harriet Zuckerman]], a review of American [[Nobel Prize]]s awarded between 1901 and 1972, 72% of American [[Nobel Prizes|Nobel Prize]] laureates identified a Protestant background.<ref name="Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United Statesh">[[Harriet Zuckerman]], ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HAHCzJfmD5IC Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523003039/https://books.google.com/books?id=HAHCzJfmD5IC |date=23 May 2020 }}'' New York, The Free Press, 1977, p. 68: Protestants turn up among the American-reared laureates in slightly greater proportion to their numbers in the general population. Thus 72 percent of the seventy-one laureates but about two-thirds of the American population were reared in one or another Protestant denomination-)</ref> Overall, 84% of all the Nobel Prizes awarded to Americans in [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Chemistry]],<ref name="Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United Statesh"/> 60% in [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Medicine]],<ref name="Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United Statesh"/> and 59% in [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Physics]]<ref name="Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United Statesh"/> between 1901 and 1972 were won by Protestants.

According to ''100 Years of Nobel Prize (2005)'', a review of Nobel Prizes awarded between 1901 and 2000, 65% of [[Nobel Prizes|Nobel Prize]] Laureates, [[List of Christian Nobel laureates|have identified Christianity]] in its various forms as their religious preference (423 prizes).<ref name="Nobel prize">Baruch A. Shalev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3jrbmL-DgZQC 100 Years of Nobel Prizes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523003140/https://books.google.com/books?id=3jrbmL-DgZQC |date=23 May 2020 }}'' (2003), Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, p. 57: between 1901 and 2000 reveals that 654 Laureates belong to 28 different religion Most 65% have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference.
While separating Catholics from Protestants among Christians proved difficult in some cases, available information suggests that more Protestants were involved in the scientific categories and more Catholics were involved in the Literature and Peace categories.

Atheists, agnostics, and freethinkers constitute 11% of total Nobel Prize winners; but in the category of Literature, these preferences rise sharply to about 35%. A striking fact involving religion is the high number of Laureates of the Jewish faith—over 20% of total Nobel Prizes (138); including: 17% in Chemistry, 26% in Medicine and Physics, 40% in Economics and 11% in Peace and Literature each. The numbers are especially startling in light of the fact that only some 14 million people (0.02% of the world's population) are Jewish. By contrast, only 5 Nobel Laureates have been of the Muslim faith—1% of total number of Nobel prizes awarded—from a population base of about 1.2 billion (20% of the world's population)</ref> While 32% have identified with Protestantism in its various forms (208 prizes),<ref name="Nobel prize"/> although Protestants are 12% to 13% of the world's population.

===Government===
{{multiple image
|align=right
|direction=horizontal
|width1=100
|width2=128
|image1=Evang.svg
|image2=Kreuz prot.svg
|footer=Church flags, as used by German Protestants.}}
During the [[Middle Ages]], the Church and the worldly authorities were closely related. Martin Luther separated the religious and the worldly realms in principle ([[doctrine of the two kingdoms]]).<ref>Heinrich Bornkamm, ''{{lang|de|Toleranz. In der Geschichte des Christentums}}'' in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band VI (1962), col. 937</ref> The believers were obliged to use reason to govern the worldly sphere in an orderly and peaceful way. Luther's doctrine of the [[priesthood of all believers]] upgraded the role of laymen in the church considerably. The members of a congregation had the right to elect a minister and, if necessary, to vote for his dismissal (Treatise ''On the right and authority of a Christian assembly or congregation to judge all doctrines and to call, install and dismiss teachers, as testified in Scripture''; 1523).<ref>Original German title: ''{{lang|de|Dass eine christliche Versammlung oder Gemeine Recht und Macht habe, alle Lehre zu beurteilen und Lehrer zu berufen, ein- und abzusetzen: Grund und Ursach aus der Schrift}}''</ref> Calvin strengthened this basically democratic approach by including elected laymen ([[church elder]]s, [[presbyter]]s) in his representative church government.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 4–10</ref> The [[Huguenot]]s added regional [[synod]]s and a national synod, whose members were elected by the congregations, to Calvin's system of church self-government. This system was taken over by the other reformed churches<ref>Karl Heussi, ''{{lang|de|Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte}}'', 11. Auflage, p. 325</ref> and was adopted by some Lutherans beginning with those in [[United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg|Jülich-Cleves-Berg]] during the 17th century.

Politically, Calvin favored a mixture of aristocracy and democracy. He appreciated the advantages of [[democracy]]: "It is an invaluable gift, if God allows a people to freely elect its own authorities and overlords."<ref>Quoted in Jan Weerda, ''Calvin'', in ''{{lang|de|Evangelisches Soziallexikon}}'', 3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 210</ref> Calvin also thought that earthly rulers lose their divine right and must be put down when they rise up against God. To further protect the rights of ordinary people, Calvin suggested separating political powers in a system of checks and balances ([[separation of powers]]). Thus he and his followers resisted political [[Absolute monarchy|absolutism]] and paved the way for the rise of modern democracy.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', p. 10</ref> Besides England, the Netherlands were, under Calvinist leadership, the freest country in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It granted asylum to philosophers like [[Baruch Spinoza]] and [[Pierre Bayle]]. [[Hugo Grotius]] was able to teach his natural-law theory and a relatively liberal interpretation of the Bible.<ref>Karl Heussi, ''{{lang|de|Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte}}'', pp. 396–397</ref>

Consistent with Calvin's political ideas, Protestants created both the English and the American democracies. In seventeenth-century England, the most important persons and events in this process were the [[English Civil War]], [[Oliver Cromwell]], [[John Milton]], [[John Locke]], the [[Glorious Revolution]], the [[English Bill of Rights]], and the [[Act of Settlement 1701|Act of Settlement]].<ref>Cf. M. Schmidt, ''{{lang|de|England. Kirchengeschichte}}'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band II (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 476–478</ref> Later, the British took their democratic ideals to their colonies, e.g. Australia, New Zealand, and India. In North America, [[Plymouth Colony]] ([[Pilgrim Fathers]]; 1620) and [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] (1628) practised democratic self-rule and [[separation of powers]].<ref>Nathaniel Philbrick (2006), ''[[iarchive:mayflowerstoryof00phil_0|Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War]]'', Penguin Group, New York, {{ISBN|0-670-03760-5}}</ref><ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 65–76</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.histarch.illinois.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html|title=Plymouth Colony Legal Structure|website=The Plymouth Colony Archive Project |first1=Christopher |last1=Fennell |access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=13 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413182727/http://www.histarch.illinois.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.hanover.edu/texts/masslib.html|title=The Massachusetts Body of Liberties (1641) |website=Hanover College History Department |access-date=13 March 2013|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020095602/http://history.hanover.edu/texts/masslib.html|url-status=live}}</ref> These [[Congregationalist]]s were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God.<ref>M. Schmidt, ''{{lang|de|Pilgerväter}}'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band V}}'' (1961), col. 384</ref> The [[Mayflower Compact]] was a [[social contract]].<ref>Christopher Fennell, ''Plymouth Colony Legal Structure''</ref><ref>Allen Weinstein and David Rubel (2002), ''The Story of America: Freedom and Crisis from Settlement to Superpower'', DK Publishing, Inc., New York, {{ISBN|0-7894-8903-1}}, p. 61</ref>

===Rights and liberty===
[[File:JohnLocke.png|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] philosopher [[John Locke]] argued for individual conscience, free from state control and helped influence the political ideology of [[Thomas Jefferson]] and other [[Founding Fathers of the United States]]]]
Protestants also took the initiative in advocating for [[religious freedom]]. Freedom of conscience had a high priority on the theological, philosophical, and political agendas since Luther refused to recant his beliefs before the Diet of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] at Worms (1521). In his view, faith was a free work of the Holy Spirit and could, therefore, not be forced on a person.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', p. 5</ref> The persecuted Anabaptists and Huguenots demanded freedom of conscience, and they practiced [[separation of church and state]].<ref>Heinrich Bornkamm, ''{{lang|de|Toleranz. In der Geschichte des Christentums}}'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band VI (1962), col. 937–938</ref> In the early seventeenth century, Baptists like [[John Smyth (Baptist minister)|John Smyth]] and [[Thomas Helwys]] published tracts in defense of religious freedom.<ref>H. Stahl, ''{{lang|de|Baptisten}}'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 863</ref> Their thinking influenced [[John Milton]] and [[John Locke]]'s stance on tolerance.<ref>G. Müller-Schwefe, ''Milton, John'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band IV, col. 955</ref><ref>Karl Heussi, ''{{lang|de|Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte}}'', p. 398</ref> Under the leadership of Baptist [[Roger Williams]], Congregationalist [[Thomas Hooker]], and Quaker [[William Penn]], respectively, [[Rhode Island]], [[Connecticut]], and [[Pennsylvania]] combined democratic constitutions with freedom of religion. These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, including [[Jews]].<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 99–106, 111–117, 124</ref><ref>Edwin S. Gaustad (1999), ''Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams in America'', Judson Press, Valley Forge, p. 28</ref><ref>Hans Fantel (1974), ''William Penn: Apostle of Dissent'', William Morrow & Co., New York, pp. 150–153</ref>

The [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the [[United States Constitution]], and the American [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]] with its fundamental human rights made this tradition permanent by giving it a legal and political framework.<ref>Robert Middlekauff (2005), ''The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789'', Revised and Expanded Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, {{ISBN|978-0-19-516247-9}}, pp. 4–6, 49–52, 622–685</ref> The great majority of American Protestants, both clergy and laity, strongly supported the independence movement. All major Protestant churches were represented in the First and Second Continental Congresses.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 192–209</ref> In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the American democracy became a model for numerous other countries and regions throughout the world (e.g., Latin America, Japan, and Germany). The strongest link between the American and [[French Revolution]]s was [[Marquis de Lafayette]], an ardent supporter of the American constitutional principles. The French [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] was mainly based on Lafayette's draft of this document.<ref>Cf. R. Voeltzel, ''{{lang|de|Frankreich. Kirchengeschichte}}'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band II (1958), col. 1039</ref> The [[Declaration by United Nations]] and [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] also echo the American constitutional tradition.<ref>Douglas K. Stevenson (1987), ''American Life and Institutions'', Ernst Klett Verlag, Stuttgart (Germany), p. 34</ref><ref>G. Jasper, ''{{lang|de|Vereinte Nationen}}'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 1328–1329</ref><ref>Cf. G. Schwarzenberger, ''{{lang|de|Völkerrecht}}'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 1420–1422</ref>

Democracy, social-contract theory, separation of powers, religious freedom, separation of church and state—these achievements of the Reformation and early Protestantism were elaborated on and popularized by [[Age of Enlightenment]] thinkers. Some of the philosophers of the English, Scottish, German, and Swiss Enlightenment—[[Thomas Hobbes]], [[John Locke]], [[John Toland]], [[David Hume]], [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]], [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]], [[Immanuel Kant]], and [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]—had Protestant backgrounds.<ref>Karl Heussi, ''{{lang|de|Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte}}'', 11. Auflage, pp. 396–399, 401–403, 417–419</ref> For example, John Locke, whose political thought was based on "a set of Protestant Christian assumptions",<ref>Jeremy Waldron (2002), ''God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought'', Cambridge University Press, New York, {{ISBN|978-0521-89057-1}}, p. 13</ref> derived the equality of all humans, including the equality of the genders ("Adam and Eve"), from Genesis 1, 26–28. As all persons were created equally free, all governments needed "the [[consent of the governed]]".<ref>Jeremy Waldron, ''God, Locke, and Equality'', pp. 21–43, 120</ref>

Also, other human rights were advocated for by some Protestants. For example, [[torture]] was abolished in [[Prussia]] in 1740, [[slavery]] in Britain in 1834 and in the United States in 1865 ([[William Wilberforce]], [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]], [[Abraham Lincoln]]—against Southern Protestants).<ref>Allen Weinstein and David Rubel, ''The Story of America'', pp. 189–309</ref><ref>Karl Heussi, ''{{lang|de|Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte}}'', 11. Auflage, pp. 403, 425</ref> [[Hugo Grotius]] and [[Samuel Pufendorf]] were among the first thinkers who made significant contributions to [[international law]].<ref>M. Elze,''Grotius, Hugo'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band II, col. 1885–1886</ref><ref>H. Hohlwein, ''Pufendorf, Samuel'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band V, col. 721</ref> The [[Geneva Convention]], an important part of humanitarian [[international law]], was largely the work of [[Henry Dunant]], a reformed [[pietist]]. He also founded the [[Red Cross]].<ref>R. Pfister, ''{{lang|de|Schweiz. Seit der Reformation}}'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band V (1961), col. 1614–1615</ref>

===Social teaching===
Protestants have founded hospitals, homes for disabled or elderly people, educational institutions, organizations that give aid to developing countries, and other social welfare agencies.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 484–494</ref><ref>H. Wagner, ''{{lang|de|Diakonie}}'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 164–167</ref><ref>J.R.H. Moorman, ''{{lang|de|Anglikanische Kirche}}'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 380–381</ref> In the nineteenth century, throughout the Anglo-American world, numerous dedicated members of all Protestant denominations were active in social reform movements such as the abolition of slavery, prison reforms, and [[woman suffrage]].<ref>Clifton E.Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 461–465</ref><ref>Allen Weinstein and David Rubel, ''The Story of America'', pp. 274–275</ref><ref>M. Schmidt, ''{{lang|de|Kongregationalismus}}'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band III, col. 1770</ref> As an answer to the "social question" of the nineteenth century, Germany under Chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]] introduced insurance programs that led the way to the [[welfare state]] ([[health insurance]], [[accident insurance]], [[disability insurance]], [[old-age pension]]s). To Bismarck this was "practical Christianity".<ref>K. Kupisch, ''Bismarck, Otto von'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 1312–1315</ref><ref>P. Quante, ''{{lang|de|Sozialversicherung}}'', in ''{{lang|de|Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart}}'', Band VI, col. 205–206</ref> These programs, too, were copied by many other nations, particularly in the Western world.

The [[Young Men's Christian Association]] was founded by Congregationalist [[George Williams (YMCA)|George Williams]], aimed at empowering young people.

===Liturgy===
{{main|Protestant liturgy}}

===Arts===
{{further|Reformation#Music and art}}
The arts have been strongly inspired by Protestant beliefs.

[[Martin Luther]], [[Paul Gerhardt]], [[George Wither]], [[Isaac Watts]], [[Charles Wesley]], [[William Cowper]], and other authors and composers created well-known church hymns.

Musicians like [[Heinrich Schütz]], [[Johann Sebastian Bach]], [[George Frideric Handel]], [[Henry Purcell]], [[Johannes Brahms]], [[Philipp Nicolai]] and [[Felix Mendelssohn]] composed great works of music.

Prominent painters with Protestant background were, for example, [[Albrecht Dürer]], [[Hans Holbein the Younger]], [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]], [[Lucas Cranach the Younger]], [[Rembrandt]], and [[Vincent van Gogh]].

World literature was enriched by the works of [[Edmund Spenser]], [[John Milton]], [[John Bunyan]], [[John Donne]], [[John Dryden]], [[Daniel Defoe]], [[William Wordsworth]], [[Jonathan Swift]], [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]], [[Friedrich Schiller]], [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Matthew Arnold]], [[Conrad Ferdinand Meyer]], [[Theodor Fontane]], [[Washington Irving]], [[Robert Browning]], [[Emily Dickinson]], [[Emily Brontë]], [[Charles Dickens]], [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], [[Thomas Stearns Eliot]], [[John Galsworthy]], [[Thomas Mann]], [[William Faulkner]], [[John Updike]], and many others.
<gallery>
File:Martin-Luther-Denkmal, Worms.JPG|[[Luther Monument (Worms)|Luther Monument in Worms]], which features some of the [[Reformation]]'s crucial figures
File:ReformationsdenkmalGenf2.jpg|The [[Reformation Wall|International Monument to the Reformation]] in [[Geneva]], Switzerland.
File:Albrecht Dürer - Adoration of the Trinity (Landauer Altar) - Google Art Project.jpg|The ''Adoration of the Trinity'' by [[Albrecht Dürer]]
File:Lucas Cranach d. Ä. - The Lamentation of Christ - The Schleißheim Crucifixion - Alte Pinakothek.jpg|The ''Crucifixion of Christ'' by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]
File:Lucas Cranach d. J. - Adam and Eve - WGA05729.jpg|''Adam and Eve'' by [[Lucas Cranach the Younger]]
File:Huguenot lovers on St. Bartholomew's Day.jpg|''A Huguenot, on St. Bartholomew's Day, Refusing to Shield Himself from Danger by Wearing the Roman Catholic Badge'' by [[John Everett Millais]].
File:Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn - Return of the Prodigal Son - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Return of the Prodigal Son]]'', a 1669 portrait by [[Rembrandt]]
File:Vincent van Gogh - The Church in Auvers-sur-Oise, View from the Chevet - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Church at Auvers]]'', 1890. Musée d'Orsay, Paris, by [[Vincent van Gogh]].
</gallery>

==Catholic responses==
{{Main|Anti-Protestantism|Counter-Reformation#Politics|Council of Trent|Criticism of Protestantism}}
{{multiple image
|align=right
|direction=vertical
|width=200
|image1=Matanzas Inlet Aerial view.jpg
|caption1=[[Matanzas Inlet]], Florida, where Protestant shipwreck [[Spanish assault on French Florida#Massacre at Matanzas Inlet|survivors were executed]] by [[Pedro Menéndez de Avilés|Menéndez]] "because they had built it there without Your Majesty's permission, and were disseminating the Lutheran religion"
|image2=La masacre de San Bartolomé, por François Dubois.jpg
|caption2=[[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]] of French Protestants, 1572.}}

The view of the [[Catholic Church]] is that Protestant denominations cannot be considered churches but rather that they are ''ecclesial communities'' or ''specific faith-believing communities'' because their ordinances and doctrines are not historically the same as the Catholic sacraments and dogmas, and the Protestant communities have no sacramental ministerial priesthood{{efn|this varies among Protestants today. In Sweden, the bishops switched to Lutheranism during the Reformation and there was no break in ordinations. See [[Apostolic succession#Lutheran claims to apostolic succession|Apostolic succession in Sweden]] for more on this. Today, as a result of shared ordinations, the entire [[Porvoo Communion]] can trace an unbroken chain of Archbishop-level ordinations going back to before the Reformation through the Swedish line. However, today Rome does not accept these ordinations as valid not because there was a break in the chain, but rather because the occurred apart from papal permission.}} and therefore lack true [[apostolic succession]].<ref>Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church, 29 June 2007, Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.</ref><ref name=AFAC>{{cite book|last1=Stuard-will|first1=Kelly|title=A Faraway Ancient Country|year=2007|publisher=Gardners Books|location=United States|isbn=978-0-615-15801-3|page=216|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q469xc7mbksC&pg=PP1|author2=Emissary|editor=Karitas Publishing|access-date=30 December 2019|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523003149/https://books.google.com/books?id=q469xc7mbksC&pg=PP1|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Bishop [[Hilarion (Alfeyev)]] the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] shares the same view on the subject.<ref>{{cite web |author=OrthodoxEurope.org |url=http://orthodoxeurope.org/page/14/124.aspx#2 |title=Bishop Hilarion of Vienna and Austria: The Vatican Document Brings Nothing New |publisher=Orthodoxeurope.org |access-date=14 May 2014 |archive-date=25 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181025084339/http://www.orthodoxeurope.org/page/14/124.aspx#2 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Contrary to how the Protestant Reformers were often characterized, the concept of a ''catholic'' or universal Church was not brushed aside during the Protestant Reformation. On the contrary, the visible unity of the ''catholic'' or ''universal church'' was seen by the Protestant reformers as an important and essential doctrine of the Reformation. The Magisterial reformers, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli, believed that they were reforming the Catholic Church, which they viewed as having become corrupted.{{efn|For more on this, see [[crypto-paganism]] and the [[Great Apostasy#Overview|Great Apostasy]]. In some areas, pagan Europeans were forced to adopt Christianity at least outwardly, such as after being defeated in battle by Christians. However, outlawing their paganism did not just make it go away. Rather, it persisted as crypto-paganism. For example, [[Philip Melanchthon]], in his 1537 [[Apology of the Augsburg Confession]] identified the mechanical character of [[ex opere operato]] sacraments as being a form of pagan [[Deterministic system (philosophy)|deterministic philosophy]].}} Each of them took very seriously the charges of schism and innovation, denying these charges and maintaining that it was the Catholic Church that had left them. The Protestant Reformers formed a new and radically different theological opinion on ecclesiology, that the visible Church is "catholic" (lower-case "c") rather than "Catholic" (upper-case "C"). Accordingly, there is not an indefinite number of parochial, congregational or national churches, constituting, as it were, so many ecclesiastical individualities, but one great spiritual republic of which these various organizations form a part,{{efn|This is the position of the Protestants who believe the church is visible. For those who think the church is invisible, organizations are irrelevant, as only individual sinners can be saved.}} although they each have very different opinions. This was markedly far-removed from the traditional and historic Catholic understanding that the Roman Catholic Church was the one true Church of Christ.{{efn|See [[Augustine of Hippo#Ecclesiology|Ecclesiology of Augustine of Hippo]] for an example of a church father who discussed the invisible church.}}

Yet in the Protestant understanding, the ''visible church'' is not a genus, so to speak, with so many species under it.{{efn|This is a reference to the [[Marks of the Church (Protestantism)|Marks of the Church]] in Reformed theology. It is thus you may think of the State, but the visible church is a ''totum integrale'', it is an empire, with an ethereal emperor, rather than a visible one. The churches of the various nationalities constitute the provinces of this empire; and though they are so far independent of each other, yet they are so one, that membership in one is membership in all, and separation from one is separation from all.... This conception of the church, of which, in at least some aspects, we have practically so much lost sight, had a firm hold of the Scottish theologians of the seventeenth century. James Walker in ''The Theology of Theologians of Scotland.'' (Edinburgh: Rpt. Knox Press, 1982) Lecture iv. pp. 95–96.}} In order to justify their departure{{efn|At least at first, Protestants did not depart per se. Rather, they were excommunicated such as in the 1520 ''[[Exsurge Domine]]'' and the 1521 ''[[Edict of Worms]]''. Some Protestants avoided excommunication by living as [[crypto-Protestant]]s.}} from the Catholic Church, Protestants often posited a new argument,{{efn|Some Protestants claim the church is visible today, this is a matter of dispute.}} saying that there was no real visible Church with divine authority, only a ''spiritual, invisible, and hidden church''—this notion began in the early days of the Protestant Reformation.

Wherever the Magisterial Reformation, which received support from the ruling authorities, took place, the result was a reformed national Protestant church envisioned to be a part of the whole ''invisible church'', but disagreeing, in certain important points of doctrine and doctrine-linked practice, with what had until then been considered the normative reference point on such matters,{{efn|The assertion of papal supremacy varied through history. For example, in 381 the [[First Council of Constantinople]] recognized the sees of Rome and Constantinople as being equal in authority. Papal supremacy continued to evolve after the Reformation with the [[First Vatican Council]].}} namely the Papacy and central authority of the Catholic Church. The Reformed churches thus believed in some form of Catholicity, founded on their doctrines of the five solas and a visible [[ecclesiastical]] organization based on the 14th- and 15th-century [[Conciliarism|Conciliar movement]], rejecting the [[papacy]] and [[papal infallibility]] in favor of [[ecumenical council]]s, but rejecting the latest ecumenical council, the [[Council of Trent]].{{efn|Lutherans did not completely reject Trent. In fact, some attended it, although they were not given a vote. Instead, [[Martin Chemnitz]] on the basis that all councils are subject to examination, wrote the ''[[Examination of the Council of Trent]]'' in which some parts of Trent were accepted and others dissented from.}} Religious unity therefore became not one of doctrine and identity but one of invisible character, wherein the unity was one of faith in Jesus Christ, not common identity, doctrine, belief, and collaborative action.

There are Protestants,{{efn|In history, Catholic sympathizing Protestants were termed [[crypto-papist]]s and lived as such because Catholicism was illegal in some areas under the legal principle of ''[[cuius regio, eius religio]]''. However, outlawing Catholics did not always force them to emigrate. Instead, they remained continued to influence the dominant church in their area.}} especially of the [[Reformed tradition]], that either reject or down-play the designation ''Protestant'' because of the negative idea that the word invokes in addition to its primary meaning, preferring the designation ''Reformed'', ''Evangelical'' or even ''Reformed Catholic'' expressive of what they call a ''Reformed Catholicity'' and defending their arguments from the traditional Protestant confessions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://spindleworks.com/library/faber/008_theca.htm |title=''The Canadian Reformed Magazine'', 18 (20–27 September, 4–11 October, 18, 1, 8 November 1969) |access-date=15 May 2007 |archive-date=6 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070806081139/http://www.spindleworks.com/library/faber/008_theca.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Ecumenism==
{{Main|Christian ecumenism}}
{{multiple image
|align=right
|direction=horizontal
|Size=thumb
|image1= Marburger-Religionsgespräch.jpg
|caption1=The [[Marburg Colloquy]] (1529) was an early attempt at uniting [[Martin Luther|Luther]] and [[Huldrych Zwingli|Zwingli]]. It failed as both reformers and their delegations could not agree on the sacrament of the [[Eucharist]]. Similar discussions were held in 1586 during the [[Colloquy of Montbéliard]] and from 1661 to 1663 during the [[Syncretistic controversy]]. Anonymous woodcut, 1557.
|image2= The 1910 World Missionary Conference,the Edinburgh Missionary Conference.jpg
|caption2=The Edinburgh Missionary Conference is considered the symbolic starting point of the contemporary ecumenical movement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oikoumene.org/en/what-we-do/cwme/history|title=History – World Council of Churches|website=www.oikoumene.org|access-date=30 July 2014|archive-date=25 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725221218/https://www.oikoumene.org/en/what-we-do/cwme/history/|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
The ecumenical movement has had an influence on [[Mainline (Protestant)|mainline]] churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the [[Edinburgh Missionary Conference]]. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, the [[World Council of Churches]] has been influential, but ineffective in creating a united church. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe; but schisms still far outnumber unifications. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the [[Church of South India]], the [[Church of North India]], the US-based [[United Church of Christ]], the [[United Church of Canada]], the [[Uniting Church in Australia]] and the [[United Church of Christ in the Philippines]] which have rapidly declining memberships. There has been a strong engagement of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] churches in the ecumenical movement, though the reaction of individual Orthodox theologians has ranged from tentative approval of the aim of Christian unity to outright condemnation of the perceived effect of watering down Orthodox doctrine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0804/__P1T.HTM |title=Orthodox Church: text – IntraText CT |publisher=Intratext.com |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-date=27 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527224429/http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0804/__P1T.HTM |url-status=live }}</ref>

A Protestant [[baptism]] is held to be valid by the Catholic Church if given with the trinitarian formula and with the intent to baptize. However, as the ordination of Protestant ministers is not recognized due to the lack of [[apostolic succession]] and the disunity from Catholic Church, all other sacraments (except marriage) performed by Protestant denominations and ministers are not recognized as valid. Therefore, Protestants desiring full communion with the Catholic Church are not re-baptized (although they are confirmed) and Protestant ministers who become Catholics may be ordained to the [[Catholic priesthood|priesthood]] after a period of study.

In 1999, the representatives of [[Lutheran World Federation]] and Catholic Church signed the [[Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification]], apparently resolving the conflict over the nature of [[Justification (theology)|justification]] which was at the root of the Protestant Reformation, although [[Confessional Lutheran]]s reject this statement.<ref name=WELS-JD>{{cite web|url=https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=19&cuItem_itemID=6741 |website=WELS Topical Q&A |title=Justification |publisher=[[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]] |quote=A document which is aimed at settling differences needs to address those differences unambiguously. The Joint Declaration does not do this. At best, it sends confusing mixed signals and should be repudiated by all Lutherans. |access-date=26 July 2016 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090927213720/https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=19&cuItem_itemID=6741 |archive-date=27 September 2009}}</ref> This is understandable, since there is no compelling authority within them. On 18 July 2006, delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.umc.org/site/c.gjJTJbMUIuE/b.1863123/k.FF49/World_Methodists_approve_further_ecumenical_dialogue.htm |title=News Archives |publisher=UMC.org |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060721210415/http://www.umc.org/site/c.gjJTJbMUIuE/b.1863123/k.FF49/World_Methodists_approve_further_ecumenical_dialogue.htm |archive-date=21 July 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0604186.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060725190303/http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0604186.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 July 2006 |title=CNS Story: Methodists adopt Catholic-Lutheran declaration on justification |publisher=Catholicnews.com |access-date=19 November 2010}}</ref>

==Spread and demographics==
{{Main|Protestantism by country}}
{{See also|Christianity by country}}
[[File:St. Peter's Church, Bermuda, Front.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[St. Peter's Church, St. George's|St. Peter's Church]] in [[Bermuda]], built in 1612, is the oldest surviving Protestant church in the "New World", including the [[Americas]] and certain Atlantic Ocean islands. It was the first of nine [[Parish church]]es established in Bermuda by the [[Church of England]]. Bermuda also has the oldest [[Presbyterian]] church outside the British Isles, the [[Church of Scotland]]'s [[Christ Church in Warwick|Christ Church]] (1719).]]
There are more than 900 million Protestants worldwide,<ref name="pewforum1"/><ref name="gordonconwell.edu"/><ref name="Hillerbrand" /><ref name="Clarke, Beyer">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rBgn3xB75ZcC&pg=PA510|title=The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations|first1=Peter B.|last1=Clarke|first2=Peter|last2=Beyer|date=2009|publisher=Taylor & Francis|via=Google Books|isbn=9781135211004|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-date=10 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210203239/https://books.google.com/books?id=rBgn3xB75ZcC&pg=PA510|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lplJPBYWefcC&pg=PA13|title=Protestantism|first=Stephen F.|last=Brown|date=2018|publisher=Infobase Publishing|via=Google Books|isbn=9781604131123|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523003040/https://books.google.com/books?id=lplJPBYWefcC&pg=PA13|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Noll">{{Cite book|url={{Google books|id=1GKBgK00JSsC|plainurl=y|page=9}}|title=Protestantism: A Very Short Introduction|first=Mark A.|last=Noll|authorlink=Mark Noll|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780191620133|archive-date=2020-05-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523003134/https://books.google.com/books?id=1GKBgK00JSsC&pg=PA9|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Diamond, Plattner, Costopoulos, 2005">Jay Diamond, Larry. Plattner, Marc F. and Costopoulos, Philip J. ''World Religions and Democracy''. 2005, p. 119. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CTqTeiBfdxEC&pg=PA119 link] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523003137/https://books.google.com/books?id=CTqTeiBfdxEC&pg=PA119 |date=23 May 2020 }} (saying "''Not only do Protestants presently constitute 13 percent of the world's population—about 800 million people—but since 1900 Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.''")</ref>{{efn|Estimates vary considerably, from 400 up to more than a billion. One of the reasons is the lack of a common agreement among scholars which denominations constitute Protestantism. Nevertheless, 800 million is the most accepted figure among various authors and scholars. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total 2004 Protestant population of 833,457,000,<ref name="books.google.pl" /> while a report by Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary—961,961,000 (with inclusion of independents as defined in this article) in mid-2015.<ref name="gordonconwell.edu"/>}} among approximately 2.4 billion Christians.<ref name="gordonconwell.edu"/><ref name="World">~34% of ~7.2 billion world population (under the section 'People') {{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/|title=World|date=15 November 2021|publisher=CIA world facts|access-date=24 January 2021|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032610/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Global Christianity">{{cite web |author=Analysis |url=http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-exec.aspx |title=Global Christianity |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=19 December 2011 |access-date=17 August 2012 |archive-date=30 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730062627/http://www.pewforum.org/christian/global-christianity-exec.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|Current sources are in general agreement that Christians make up about 33% of the world's population—slightly over 2.4 billion adherents in mid-2015.}} In 2010, a total of more than 800 million included 300 million in Sub-Saharan Africa, 260 million in the Americas, 140 million in Asia-Pacific region, 100 million in Europe and 2 million in Middle East-North Africa.<ref name="pewforum1"/> Protestants account for nearly forty percent of Christians worldwide, and are more than one tenth of the total human population.<ref name="pewforum1"/> Various estimates put the percentage of Protestants in relation to the total number of world's Christians at 33%,<ref name="Clarke, Beyer" /> 36%,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/rel04-demograph.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318101547/http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/rel04-demograph.htm|url-status=dead|title=Protestant Demographics and Fragmentations|archive-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> 36.7%,<ref name="pewforum1"/> and 40%,<ref name="Hillerbrand"/> while in relation to the world's population at 11.6%<ref name="pewforum1"/> and 13%.<ref name="Diamond, Plattner, Costopoulos, 2005"/>

In European countries which were most profoundly influenced by the Reformation, Protestantism still remains the most practiced religion.<ref name="Clarke, Beyer" /> These include the [[Nordic countries]] and the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="Clarke, Beyer" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Religious Populations in England|url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=954|publisher=Office for National Statistics|access-date=8 April 2011|archive-date=24 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824122412/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=954|url-status=live}}</ref> In other historical Protestant strongholds such as Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Latvia, and Estonia, it remains one of the most popular religions.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I9OyQ9mEpxkC&pg=SL1-PA42|title=The Pearson General Knowledge Manual 2012|first=Edgar|last=Thorpe|date=2018|publisher=Pearson Education India|via=Google Books|isbn=9788131761908|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523003139/https://books.google.com/books?id=I9OyQ9mEpxkC&pg=SL1-PA42|url-status=live}}</ref> Although Czech Republic was the site of [[Hussites|one of the most significant pre-reformation movements]],<ref name="museeprotestant.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.museeprotestant.org/en/notice/protestantism-in-the-republic-of-czechoslovakia/|title=Protestantism in Bohemia and Moravia (Czech Republic) – Musée virtuel du Protestantisme|website=www.museeprotestant.org|access-date=24 July 2014|archive-date=15 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015211407/http://www.museeprotestant.org/en/notice/protestantism-in-the-republic-of-czechoslovakia/|url-status=live}}</ref> there are only few Protestant adherents;<ref>{{cite web|language=cs |url=http://www.czso.cz/sldb2011/eng/redakce.nsf/i/tab_7_1_population_by_religious_belief_and_by_municipality_size_groups/$File/PVCR071_ENG.pdf |title=Tab 7.1 Population by religious belief and by municipality size groups |publisher=Czso.cz |access-date=19 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221184947/http://www.czso.cz/sldb2011/eng/redakce.nsf/i/tab_7_1_population_by_religious_belief_and_by_municipality_size_groups/%24File/PVCR071_ENG.pdf |archive-date=21 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|language=cs |url=http://www.czso.cz/sldb2011/eng/redakce.nsf/i/tab_7_2_population_by_religious_belief_and_by_regions/$File/PVCR072_ENG.pdf |title=Tab 7.2 Population by religious belief and by regions |publisher=Czso.cz |access-date=19 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104224923/http://www.czso.cz/sldb2011/eng/redakce.nsf/i/tab_7_2_population_by_religious_belief_and_by_regions/%24File/PVCR072_ENG.pdf |archive-date=4 November 2013}}</ref> mainly due to historical reasons like persecution of Protestants by the [[Catholic]] [[Habsburgs]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pqJNavelP3UC&pg=PA108|title=Frommer's Prague & the Best of the Czech Republic|first=Hana|last=Mastrini|date=2008|publisher=Wiley|via=Google Books|isbn=9780470293232|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523003043/https://books.google.com/books?id=pqJNavelP3UC&pg=PA108|url-status=live}}</ref> restrictions during the [[Communism|Communist rule]], and also the ongoing [[secularization]].<ref name="museeprotestant.org"/> Over the last several decades, religious practice has been declining as [[secularization]] has increased.<ref name="Clarke, Beyer" /><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/31/arts/31iht-idlede1.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all | work=The New York Times | first=Mark | last=Lilla | title=Europe and the legend of secularization | date=31 March 2006 | access-date=12 February 2017 | archive-date=30 January 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130062241/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/31/arts/31iht-idlede1.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all | url-status=live }}</ref> According to a 2019 study about Religiosity in the European Union in 2019 by [[Eurobarometer]], Protestants made up 9% of the [[EU]] population.<ref>{{citation |title=Discrimination in the EU in 2019 |work=[[Eurobarometer|Special Eurobarometer]] |year=2019 |series=493 |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/index.cfm/Survey/getSurveyDetail/instruments/SPECIAL/surveyKy/2251 |access-date=15 May 2020 |publisher=European Commission |location=European Union |archive-date=18 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518204808/https://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/index.cfm/Survey/getSurveyDetail/instruments/SPECIAL/surveyKy/2251 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to [[Pew Research Center]], Protestants constituted nearly one fifth (or 18%) of the [[Christianity in Europe|continent's Christian population]] in 2010.<ref name="pewforum1"/> Clarke and Beyer estimate that Protestants constituted 15% of all Europeans in 2009, while Noll claims that less than 12% of them lived in Europe in 2010.<ref name="Clarke, Beyer"/><ref name="Noll"/>

Changes in worldwide Protestantism over the last century have been significant.<ref name="Hillerbrand"/><ref name="Noll"/><ref name = "Witte and Alexander">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Ie-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT44|title=The Teachings of Modern Protestantism on Law, Politics, and Human Nature|first1=John|last1=Witte|first2=Frank S.|last2=Alexander|year=2018|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=9780231142632|via=Google Books|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523003155/https://books.google.com/books?id=3Ie-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT44|url-status=live}}</ref> Since 1900, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Latin America.<ref name = "Encyclopedia of Protestantism" /><ref name="Diamond, Plattner, Costopoulos, 2005"/><ref name = "Witte and Alexander" /> That caused Protestantism to be called a primarily non-Western religion.<ref name="Noll"/><ref name = "Witte and Alexander" /> Much of the growth has occurred after [[World War II]], when [[decolonization of Africa]] and abolition of [[Anti-Protestantism|various restrictions against Protestants]] in [[Latin America]]n countries occurred.<ref name="Diamond, Plattner, Costopoulos, 2005"/> According to one source, Protestants constituted respectively 2.5%, 2%, 0.5% of Latin Americans, Africans and Asians.<ref name="Diamond, Plattner, Costopoulos, 2005"/> In 2000, percentage of Protestants on mentioned continents was 17%, more than 27% and 6%, respectively.<ref name="Diamond, Plattner, Costopoulos, 2005"/> According to Mark A. Noll, 79% of [[Anglicans]] lived in the United Kingdom in 1910, while most of the remainder was found in the United States and across the [[British Commonwealth]].<ref name="Noll"/> By 2010, 59% of Anglicans were found in Africa.<ref name="Noll"/> In 2010, more Protestants lived in India than in the UK or Germany, while Protestants in Brazil accounted for as many people as Protestants in the UK and Germany combined.<ref name="Noll"/> Almost as many lived in each of [[Nigeria]] and China as in all of Europe.<ref name="Noll"/> China is home to world's largest Protestant minority.<ref name="pewforum1"/>{{efn|Estimates for China vary in dozens of millions. Nevertheless, in comparison to the other countries, there is no disagreement that China has the most numerous Protestant minority.}}

Protestantism is growing in Africa,<ref name = "Encyclopedia of Protestantism" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/religion/story/2011-12-20/christianity-growth-africa-europe/52125920/1|title=Study: Christianity grows exponentially in Africa|access-date=23 July 2014|archive-date=20 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120193240/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/religion/story/2011-12-20/christianity-growth-africa-europe/52125920/1|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="TIME 2001">{{cite magazine|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,156277,00.html|title=The Battle for Latin America's Soul|first=Richard N.|last=Ostling|magazine=Time|date=24 June 2001|via=content.time.com|access-date=23 July 2014|archive-date=26 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926044305/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,156277,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Asia,<ref name = "Encyclopedia of Protestantism" /><ref name="TIME 2001"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/china-protestantisms-simplicity-yields-more-converts-catholicism-213465|title=In China, Protestantism's Simplicity Yields More Converts Than Catholicism|website=[[International Business Times]]|date=28 March 2012|access-date=23 July 2014|archive-date=12 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812085447/http://www.ibtimes.com/china-protestantisms-simplicity-yields-more-converts-catholicism-213465|url-status=live}}</ref> Latin America,<ref name="TIME 2001"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/03/201232593459332334.html|title=Evangelicals rise in Latin America|first=Chris|last=Arsenault|website=www.aljazeera.com|access-date=23 July 2014|archive-date=8 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308115716/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/03/201232593459332334.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and Oceania,<ref name = "Encyclopedia of Protestantism" /><ref name = "Witte and Alexander" /> while declining in [[Anglo America]]<ref name = "Witte and Alexander" /><ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/americas-changing-religious-landscape/ America's Changing Religious Landscape] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226054944/http://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/americas-changing-religious-landscape/ |date=26 December 2018 }}, by [[Pew Research Center]], 12 May 2015</ref> and Europe,<ref name="Clarke, Beyer" /><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XRLBF3KW8HkC&pg=PA59|title=Religion in a Secularizing Society: The Europeans' Religion at the End of the 20th Century|first1=Loek|last1=Halman|first2=Ole|last2=Riis|year=2018|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004126220|via=Google Books|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523003154/https://books.google.com/books?id=XRLBF3KW8HkC&pg=PA59|url-status=live}}</ref> with some exceptions such as France,<ref name = "Jean-Paul Willaime">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DaJtXsY4ttQC&pg=PA99|title=Religious Newcomers and the Nation State: Political Culture and Organized Religion in France and the Netherlands|first1=Erik|last1=Sengers|first2=Thijl|last2=Sunier|date=2018|publisher=Eburon Uitgeverij B.V.|isbn=9789059723986|via=Google Books|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523003132/https://books.google.com/books?id=DaJtXsY4ttQC&pg=PA99|url-status=live}}</ref> where it was eradicated after the abolition of the [[Edict of Nantes]] by the [[Edict of Fontainebleau]] and the following persecution of [[Huguenots]], but now is claimed to be stable in number or even growing slightly.<ref name = "Jean-Paul Willaime" /> According to some, [[Russia]] is another country to see a Protestant revival.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbn.com/cbnnews/world/2011/april/protestant-revival-sweeps-moscow/|title=Moscow Church Spearheads Russia Revival|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-date=27 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527024350/http://www.cbn.com/cbnnews/world/2011/April/Protestant-Revival-Sweeps-Moscow/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/28-1_093.pdf|title=Protestantism in Postsoviet Russia: An Unacknowledged Triumph|access-date=23 July 2014|archive-date=10 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110073012/http://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/28-1_093.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2002/june10/13.22.html?paging=off|title=Growing Protestants, Catholics Draw Ire|author=Felix Corley and Geraldine Fagan|website=ChristianityToday.com|date=10 June 2002 |access-date=14 February 2015|archive-date=20 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120113934/https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2002/june10/13.22.html?paging=off|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2010, the largest Protestant denominational families were historically Pentecostal denominations (11%), Anglican (11%), Lutheran (10%), Baptist (9%), [[United and uniting churches]] (unions of different denominations) (7%), Presbyterian or Reformed (7%), Methodist (3%), Adventist (3%), Congregationalist (1%), [[Plymouth Brethren|Brethren]] (1%), [[The Salvation Army]] (<1%) and [[Moravian Church|Moravian]] (<1%). Other denominations accounted for 38% of Protestants.<ref name="pewforum1"/>

The United States is home to approximately 20% of Protestants.<ref name="pewforum1"/> According to a 2012 study, Protestant share of U.S. population dropped to 48%, thus ending its status as religion of the majority for the first time.<ref name = "Nones of the Rise">[http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/10/NonesOnTheRise-full.pdf "Nones" on the Rise: One-in-Five Adults Have No Religious Affiliation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826234925/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/10/NonesOnTheRise-full.pdf |date=26 August 2014}}, Pew Research Center (The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life), 9 October 2012</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-19892837|title=US Protestants no longer majority|work=BBC News|date=10 October 2012|access-date=21 July 2018|archive-date=10 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010042339/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-19892837|url-status=live}}</ref> The decline is attributed mainly to the dropping membership of the [[Mainline Protestant]] churches,<ref name = "Nones of the Rise"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.leaderu.com/ftissues/ft9303/articles/johnson.html|title=Mainline Churches: The Real Reason for Decline|website=www.leaderu.com|access-date=23 July 2014|archive-date=29 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429115337/http://www.leaderu.com/ftissues/ft9303/articles/johnson.html|url-status=live}}</ref> while [[Evangelical Protestant]] and [[Black church]]es are stable or continue to grow.<ref name = "Nones of the Rise"/>

By 2050, Protestantism is projected to rise to slightly more than half of the world's total Christian population.<ref name=":3">Johnstone, Patrick, [https://books.google.com/books?id=AVzFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 "The Future of the Global Church: History, Trends and Possibilities"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519062536/https://books.google.com/books?id=AVzFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 |date=19 May 2020 }}, p. 100, fig 4.10 & 4.11</ref>{{efn|Magisterial Protestant, Independent, Anabaptist and Anglican parties are understood as Protestant as stated previously in the article, as well as in the book: ''Statistics for the P, I and A megablocs are often combined because they overlap so much-hence the order followed here.''}} According to other experts such as Hans J. Hillerbrand, Protestants will be as numerous as Catholics.<ref name=":2">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Hillerbrand |editor-given=Hans J. |title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism |volume=1–4 |year=2004 |place=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-92472-6 |url={{Google books|id=PMSTAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=1815}} |archive-date=2020-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523003036/https://books.google.com/books?id=4tbFBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT3311 |url-status=live |page=1815 |quote="Observers carefully comparing all these figures in the total context will have observed the even more startling finding that for the first time ever in the history of Protestantism, ''Wider Protestants'' will by 2050 have become almost exactly as numerous as Catholics—each with just over 1.5 billion followers, or 17 percent of the world, with Protestants growing considerably faster than Catholics each year."}}</ref>

According to [[Mark Juergensmeyer|Mark Jürgensmeyer]] of the [[University of California, Santa Barbara|University of California]], popular Protestantism{{efn|A flexible term; defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving from the Protestant Reformation.}} is the most dynamic religious movement in the contemporary world, alongside the resurgent [[Islam]].<ref name="books.google.com"/>

<gallery widths="300px" heights="155px" class="center">
File:Protestant majority countries (2010).svg|Protestant majority countries in 2010.
File:Countries by percentage of Protestants (2010).svg|Countries by percentage of Protestants, 2010.
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Anti-Catholicism]]
* [[Criticism of Protestantism]]
* [[European wars of religion]]
* [[Protestantism and Islam]]
* [[Protestantism in Germany]]
* [[Church architecture#The Reformation and its influence on church architecture|The Reformation and its influence on church architecture]]
{{Portalbar|Religion|Christianity|Reformed Christianity|Evangelical Christianity}}

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

===Works cited===
* {{cite journal |last1=Becker |first1=Sascha O.|last2=Pfaff |first2=Steven |last3=Rubin |first3=Jared |title=Causes and Consequences of the Protestant Reformation |journal=ESI Working Paper 16–13 |year=2016 |url=https://digitalcommons.chapman.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1177&context=esi_working_papers|issn=2572-1496}}

==Further reading==
; General
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Hillerbrand |editor-given=Hans J. |title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism |volume=1–4 |year=2004 |place=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-92472-6 |url={{Google books|id=PMSTAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=}} |archive-date=2020-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523002949/https://books.google.com/books?id=PMSTAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA349 |url-status=live}} 2195 pp. Reprint 2014.
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Melton |editor-given=J. Gordon |editor-link=J. Gordon Melton |year=2005 |title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism |place=New York |publisher=Facts On File |series=Encyclopedia of World Religions |url={{Google books|id=bW3sXBjnokkC|plainurl=y|page=}} |isbn=0-8160-5456-8}} 628 pp.

; Special
* Bruce, Steve (2019). ''A house divided: Protestantism, Schism and secularization''. London; New York: Routledge.
* Cook, Martin L. (1991). ''The Open Circle: Confessional Method in Theology''. Minneapolis, Mn: Fortress Press. xiv, 130 p. N.B.: Discusses the place of Confessions of Faith in Protestant theology, especially in Lutheranism. {{ISBN|0-8006-2482-3}}
* [[John Dillenberger|Dillenberger, John]], and [[Claude Welch (theologian)|Claude Welch]] (1988). ''Protestant Christianity, Interpreted through Its Development''. Second ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. {{ISBN|0-02-329601-1}}
* Giussani, Luigi (1969), trans. Damian Bacich (2013). American Protestant Theology: A Historical Sketch. Montreal: McGill-Queens UP.
* Grytten, Ola Honningdal. "Weber revisited: A literature review on the possible Link between Protestantism, Entrepreneurship and Economic Growth." (NHH Dept. of Economics Discussion Paper 08, 2020). [https://openaccess.nhh.no/nhh-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/2657268/DP%2008.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y online]
* Howard, Thomas A. ''Remembering the Reformation: an inquiry into the meanings of Protestantism'' (Oxford UP, 2016).
* Howard, Thomas A. and Mark A. Noll, eds. ''Protestantism after 500 years'' (Oxford UP, 2016).
* Leithart, Peter J. ''The end of Protestantism: pursuing unity in a fragmented church'' (Brazos Press, 2016).
* {{cite book|title=Christianity's Dangerous Idea|last=McGrath|first=Alister E.|author-link=Alister McGrath|year=2007|location=New York|publisher=[[HarperOne]]|isbn=978-0060822132|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/christianitysdan00mcgr_0}}
* Nash, Arnold S., ed. (1951). ''Protestant Thought in the Twentieth Century: Whence & Whither''? New York: Macmillan Co.
* {{cite book|title=Protestantism: A Very Short Introduction|last=Noll|first=Mark A.|author-link=Mark Noll|year=2011|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* Ryrie, Alec ''Protestants: The Radicals Who Made the Modern World'' (HarperCollins, 2017).
* Ryrie, Alec "The World's Local Religion" [http://www.historytoday.com/alec-ryrie/worlds-local-religion ''History Today'' (Sept 20, 2017) online]

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|Protestant|Protestantism|evangelical}}
{{Commons category|Protestantism}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{cite web|url=https://m.wikihow.com/Declare-Your-Personal-Christian-Statement-of-Faith-%28Protestant%29|title= Personal Christian Statement of Faith (Protestant)|language=en|publisher= [[wikiHow]]|date= 29 July 2015}}
* [http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Protestantism.aspx Protestantism] ([[Encyclopedia.com]])
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180521073511/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12495a.htm "Protestantism"] from the 1917 ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]''
* [http://historyscoper.com/protestantscope.html The Historyscoper]
* [http://www.oikoumene.org/ World Council of Churches] – World body for mainline Protestant churches

{{Christianity footer}}
{{Religion topics}}
{{Beliefs condemned by the Catholic Church}}
{{Western culture}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Protestantism| ]]
[[Category:16th-century introductions]]
[[Category:Christian terminology]]

God in Christianity

2024-04-16T19:31:15Z

2A00:23C6:F389:B301:E94F:7595:CDDA:677B:

{{Short description|Christian conception of God}}
[[File:By Dore, Gustave; La Sainte Trinite.jpg|270px|thumb|right|''[[Trinity|La Sainte Trinite]]'', painting by [[Gustave Doré]] (1866). [[God the Father]] presents the body of [[Jesus|Christ]], his [[God the Son|Divine Son]], with [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|the Holy Spirit]] visible as a dove at the top of the image.]]
{{God|by religion}}
{{Christianity|expanded=theology}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}

In [[Christianity]], [[God]] is believed to be the [[God and eternity|eternal]], supreme being who [[Creator god|created]] and [[God the Sustainer|preserves]] all things.{{refn|<ref name="Theokritoff 2010">{{cite book |author-last=Theokritoff |author-first=Elizabeth |year=2010 |origyear=2008 |chapter=Part I: Doctrine and Tradition – Creator and creation |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jP2vivMSezMC&pg=PA63 |editor1-last=Cunningham |editor1-first=Mary B. |editor2-last=Theokritoff |editor2-first=Elizabeth |title=The Cambridge Companion to Orthodox Christian Theology |location=[[Cambridge]] and New York City |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=63–77 |doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521864848.005 |isbn=9781139001977}}</ref><ref name="Young 2008">{{cite book |author-last=Young |author-first=Frances M. |author-link=Frances Young |year=2008 |chapter=Part V: The Shaping of Christian Theology – Monotheism and Christology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UTfmw_zStsC&pg=PA452 |editor1-last=Mitchell |editor1-first=Margaret M. |editor1-link=Margaret M. Mitchell |editor2-last=Young |editor2-first=Frances M. |title=The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume 1: Origins to Constantine |location=[[Cambridge]] and New York City |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=452–469 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.027 |isbn=9781139054836}}</ref><ref name="Cross-Livingstone 2005">{{cite book |editor1-last=Cross |editor1-first=F. L. |editor1-link=F. L. Cross |editor2-last=Livingstone |editor2-first=E. A. |editor2-link=Elizabeth Livingstone |year=2005 |chapter=Doctrine of the Trinity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1652 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |location=[[Oxford]] and New York City |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |edition=3rd Revised |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192802903.001.0001 |pages=1652–1653 |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3}}</ref><ref name="Schnelle 2005">{{cite book |author-last=Schnelle |author-first=Udo |author-link=Udo Schnelle |year=2005 |origyear=2003 |chapter=Part II: The Basic Structures of Pauline Thought – Theology: God as the Father of Jesus Christ |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dh4MKI1QhCEC&pg=PA395 |title=Apostle Paul: His Life and Theology |location=[[Ada, Michigan]] |publisher=[[Baker Academic]] |edition=1st |pages=395–400 |isbn=9781441242006 |lccn=2005025534}}</ref>}} Most [[Christians]] believe in a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]], [[Trinity#One God in three persons|trinitarian]] conception of [[God]], which is both [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] (wholly independent of, and removed from, the material universe) and [[Immanence|immanent]] (involved in the material universe).{{refn|<ref name="Theokritoff 2010"/><ref name="Young 2008"/><ref name="Cross-Livingstone 2005"/><ref name="Schnelle 2005"/>}} Most Christians believe in a singular God that exists in a [[Trinity]], which consists of three persons: [[God the Father]], [[God the Son]], and [[God the Holy Spirit]]. Christian teachings on the transcendence, immanence, and involvement of God in the world and his love for humanity exclude the belief that God is of the same substance as the created universe (rejection of [[pantheism]]) but accept that God the Son assumed [[Hypostatic union|hypostatically united]] human nature, thus becoming man in a unique event known as "the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]]".{{refn|<ref name="Theokritoff 2010"/><ref>{{cite book |author-last=Weinandy |author-first=Thomas G. |year=2019 |origyear=2015 |chapter=Part I: Catholic Teaching – God, the Creation, and the History of Salvation: The Incarnation |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UPqNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 |editor1-last=Ayres |editor1-first=Lewis |editor2-last=Volpe |editor2-first=Medi Ann |title=The Oxford Handbook of Catholic Theology |location=[[Oxford]] and New York City |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=167–182 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199566273.013.7 |isbn=9780199566273 |lccn=2018965377}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-last=Louth |author-first=Andrew |year=2007 |chapter=The Place of ''Theosis'' in Orthodox Theology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DgtUoMqm594C&pg=PA32 |editor1-last=Christensen |editor1-first=Michael J. |editor2-last=Wittung |editor2-first=Jeffery A. |title=Partakers of the Divine Nature: The History and Development of Deification in the Christian Traditions |location=[[Madison, New Jersey]] and [[Vancouver, British Columbia]] |publisher=[[Fairleigh Dickinson University Press]] |pages=32–44 |isbn=978-0-8386-4111-8 |lccn=2006017877}}</ref><ref name="DelColle 2001">{{cite book |author-last=Del Colle |author-first=Ralph |year=2001 |origyear=1997 |chapter=Part II: The content of Christian doctrine – The Triune God |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvCmnn4Tq20C&pg=PA121 |editor-last=Gunton |editor-first=Colin E. |editor-link=Colin Gunton |title=The Cambridge Companion to Christian Doctrine |location=[[Cambridge]] and New York City |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=121–140 |doi=10.1017/CCOL0521471184.009 |isbn=9781139000000}}</ref>}}

[[Early Christianity|Early Christian]] views of God were expressed in the [[Pauline epistles]] and the early [[Christian creeds]],{{refn|<ref name="Schnelle 2005"/><ref name="Kelly 2006">{{cite book |author-last=Kelly |author-first=J. N. D. |author-link=John Norman Davidson Kelly |year=2006 |origyear=1950 |chapter=Part II: Creeds and Baptism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Titk-TEYqD4C&pg=PA30 |title=Early Christian Creeds |location=London and New York City |publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group|Continuum International]] |edition=3rd |pages=30–61 |doi=10.4324/9781315836720 |isbn=9781315836720 |s2cid=161264947}}</ref><ref name="BWell424">{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Fotopoulos |author-first=John |year=2010 |title=Chapter 23: 1 Corinthians |editor-last=Aune |editor-first=David E. |editor-link=David Edward Aune |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament |location=[[Chichester, West Sussex]] |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |pages=413–433 |doi=10.1002/9781444318937.ch23 |isbn=9781444318937|s2cid=241555937 }}</ref>}} which proclaimed one God and the [[divinity of Jesus]].{{efn|One example is [[1 Corinthians]] 8:5-6:<ref name="Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|8:5-6">{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|8:5-6}}</ref> "For even if there are so-called gods, whether in heaven or on earth (as indeed there are many 'gods' and many 'lords'), yet for us there is but one [[God the Father#Christianity|God, the Father]], from whom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and through whom we live."}}{{refn|<ref name="Young 2008"/><ref name="Bernard 2019">{{cite book |last=Bernard |first=David K. |author-link=David K. Bernard |year=2019 |origyear=2016 |chapter=Monotheism in Paul's Rhetorical World |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0AD1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 |title=The Glory of God in the Face of Jesus Christ: Deification of Jesus in Early Christian Discourse |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Journal of Pentecostal Theology: Supplement Series |volume=45 |pages=53–82 |isbn=978-90-04-39721-7 |issn=0966-7393}}</ref><ref name="Hurtado 2015">{{cite book |last=Hurtado |first=Larry W. |author-link=Larry Hurtado |year=2015 |origyear=1988 |chapter=Introduction: Early Christology and Chronology – Chapter 5: The Early Christian Mutation |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dS41CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=One God, One Lord: Early Christian Devotion and Ancient Jewish Monotheism |location=London and New York City |publisher=[[T&T Clark]] |edition=3rd |pages=1–16, 97–130 |isbn=9780567657718}}</ref><ref name="Hurtado 2005">{{cite book |last=Hurtado |first=Larry W. |year=2005 |chapter=How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God? Approaches to Jesus-Devotion in Earliest Christianity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi5xIxgnNgcC&pg=PA13 |title=How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God? Historical Questions about Earliest Devotion to Jesus |location=[[Grand Rapids, Michigan]] and [[Cambridge]], U.K. |publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans]] |pages=13–55 |isbn=978-0-8028-2861-3}}</ref>}} Although some early sects of Christianity, such as the [[Jewish Christians|Jewish-Christian]] [[Ebionites]], protested against the [[apotheosis]] of Jesus,<ref>("Clementine Homilies", xvi. 15)</ref> the concept of Jesus being [[homoousion|one with God]] was accepted by the majority of [[Gentile Christians]].<ref name="JE-Trinity">{{cite encyclopedia|title=TRINITY|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14519-trinity|encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia|publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com|access-date=22 August 2013}}</ref> This formed one aspect of the [[split of early Christianity and Judaism]], as Gentile Christian views of God began to diverge from the traditional Jewish teachings of the time.<ref name="Hurtado 2015"/>

The [[Christian theology|theology]] of the [[Attributes of God in Christianity|attributes and nature of God]] has been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity, with [[Irenaeus]] writing in the 2nd century: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things".<ref name=Irena27/> In the 8th century, [[John of Damascus]] listed eighteen attributes which remain widely accepted.<ref name=Globe352/> As time passed, Christian theologians developed systematic lists of these attributes, some based on statements in the Bible (e.g., the [[Lord's Prayer]], stating that the [[God the Father|Father]] is in [[Heaven (Christianity)|Heaven]]), others based on theological reasoning.<ref name=SGuthrie/><ref name=Hirschberger>Hirschberger, Johannes. ''Historia de la Filosofía I, Barcelona'': Herder 1977, p.403</ref> The [[Kingdom of God (Christianity)|Kingdom of God]] is a prominent phrase in the [[Synoptic Gospels]], and while there is near unanimous agreement among scholars that it represents a key element of the [[teachings of Jesus]], there is little scholarly agreement on its exact interpretation.<ref name=Image478/><ref name=FranceK1/>

Although the [[New Testament]] does not have a formal doctrine of the Trinity as such, "it does repeatedly speak of [[God the Father|the Father]], [[God the Son|the Son]], and the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]]... in such a way as to compel a [[Trinitarian]] understanding of God".<ref name=Stagg>Stagg, Frank. ''New Testament Theology''. Broadman Press, 1962. {{ISBN|0-8054-1613-7}}. p. 38</ref> Around the year 200 AD, [[Tertullian]] formulated a version of the doctrine of the Trinity which clearly affirmed the divinity of Jesus.<ref name="DelColle 2001"/><ref name="Kelly 2006"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kelly |first1=J. N. D. |title=Early Christian doctrines |date=2000 |publisher=Continuum |location=London |isbn=978-0826452528 |page=150 |edition=5th}}</ref> This concept was later expanded upon at the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325 AD,<ref name=Stagg/> and a later definitive form was produced by the [[First Council of Constantinople|Ecumenical Council of 381]].<ref name=Prestige29>Prestige, G.L. ''Fathers and Heretics'' SPCK:1963, p. 29</ref> The Trinitarian doctrine holds that God the Son, God the Father, and God the Holy Spirit are all different [[Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|hypostases]] (Persons) of one substance,<ref name="DelColle 2001"/><ref name=Behr/><ref name=Fair48/> and is not traditionally held to be one of [[tritheism]].<ref name="DelColle 2001"/> Trinitarianism was subsequently adopted as the official theological doctrine through [[Nicene Christianity]] thereafter, and forms a cornerstone of modern Christian understandings of God, though some Christian denominations hold [[Nontrinitarianism|Nontrinitarian views about the Godhead]].{{refn|<ref name="Cross-Livingstone 2005"/><ref name=mercer935/><ref name=Kelly115/><ref name=Mac117/>}}

== Background ==
{{Main|God in Abrahamic religions}}
{{Further|History of Christianity}}

[[Christians]], in common with [[Jews]] and [[Muslims]], identify with the [[Patriarchs (Bible)|biblical patriarch]] [[Abraham]] to whom God [[Revelation|revealed]] himself.<ref name="Firestone 2015">{{cite book |author-last=Firestone |author-first=Reuven |author-link=Reuven Firestone |year=2015 |chapter=Abraham and Authenticity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_B2DCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |editor1-last=Blidstein |editor1-first=Moshe |editor2-last=Silverstein |editor2-first=Adam J. |editor3-last=Stroumsa |editor3-first=Guy G. |editor3-link=Guy Stroumsa |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions |location=[[Oxford]] and New York City |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=3–21 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697762.013.9 |isbn=978-0-19-969776-2 |lccn=2014960132 |s2cid=170382297}}</ref> It is believed that Abraham was the first to affirm [[monotheism]] (one God) and had an ideal relationship with God.<ref name="Firestone 2015"/> The [[Abrahamic religions]] believe that God continuously interacted with the descendants of Abraham over millennia; both Christians and Jews believe that this [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant]] is recorded in the [[Hebrew Bible]], which most [[Christian denominations]] consider to be and refer to as the [[Old Testament]].<ref name="Firestone 2015"/> In the traditional interpretations of Christianity, God is always referred to with [[Grammatical gender|masculine grammatical articles]] only.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Christiano |editor1-first=Kevin J. |editor2-last=Kivisto |editor2-first=Peter |editor3-last=Swatos |editor3-first=William H. Jr. |year=2015 |orig-year=2002 |title=Sociology of Religion: Contemporary Developments |chapter=Excursus on the History of Religions |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EYtjY7GJav4C&pg=PA254 |location=[[Walnut Creek, California]] |publisher=[[AltaMira Press]] |edition=3rd |pages=254–255 |doi=10.2307/3512222 |jstor=3512222 |isbn=978-1-4422-1691-4 |lccn=2001035412 |s2cid=154932078}}</ref>

== Development of the conception of God ==

=== Overview ===
{{Main article|Attributes of God in Christianity|History of Christian theology}}
{{Further|Diversity in early Christian theology|Great Apostasy|Nontrinitarianism|Son of God (Christianity)|Trinity}}

[[File:P46.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|A folio from [[Papyrus 46]] containing a copy of 2 Corinthians 11:33–12:9. This folio dates to between 175 and 225 AD.]]

[[Early Christianity|Early Christian]] views of God (before the [[Canonical gospel|gospels]] were written) are reflected in the [[Apostle Paul]]'s statement in [[1 Corinthians]] 8:5–6,<ref name="Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|8:5-6" /> written {{circa|AD 53–54}}, about twenty years after the [[crucifixion of Jesus]], and 12–21 years before the earliest of the canonical gospels was written:<ref name="Hurtado 2015"/>

{{blockquote|...for us there is but one God, the Father, from whom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and through whom we live.}}

Apart from asserting that there is one God, Paul's statement (which is likely based on pre-Pauline confessions) includes a number of other significant elements: he distinguishes Christian belief from the Jewish background of the time by referring to Jesus and the Father almost in the same breath, and by conferring on Jesus the title of divine honor "Lord", as well as calling him Christ.<ref name="Schnelle 2005"/><ref name="Hurtado 2015"/><ref name=BWell424/>

In the [[Acts of the Apostles|Book of Acts]] (Acts 17:24–27),<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|17:24–27}}</ref> during the [[Areopagus sermon]] given by Paul, he further characterizes the early Christian understanding:<ref name=Udo477>''Theology of the New Testament'' by Udo Schnelle (1 November 2009), {{ISBN|0801036046}}, page 477.</ref>

{{blockquote|The God that made the world and all things therein, he, being Lord of heaven and earth}}

Paul also reflects on the relationship between God and Christians:<ref name=Udo477/>

{{blockquote|...that they should seek God, if haply they might feel after him and find him, though he is not far from each one of us for in him we live.}}

The [[Pauline epistles]] also include a number of references to the Holy Spirit, with the theme which appears in [[1 Thessalonians]] 4:8<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Thessalonians|4:8}}</ref> – "...God, the very God who gives you his Holy Spirit" – appearing throughout his epistles.<ref name=Dunn418 >''Theology of Paul the Apostle'' by James D. G. Dunn 2003 {{ISBN|0-567-08958-4}} pages 418–420</ref> In John 14:26,<ref>{{Bibleref2|John|14:26}}</ref> Jesus also refers to "the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name".<ref>''[[iarchive:anointedcommunit0000burg|The anointed community: the Holy Spirit in the Johannine tradition]]'' by [[Gary M. Burge]] 1987 {{ISBN|0-8028-0193-5}} pages 14–21</ref>

By the end of the 1st century, [[Clement of Rome]] had repeatedly referred to the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and linked the Father to creation in 1 Clement 19.2,<ref>[[Wikisource:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume IX/The Epistles of Clement/The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians/Chapter 19|1 Clement 19.2]]</ref> stating: "let us look steadfastly to the Father and creator of the universe".<ref name=Veli70>''The Doctrine of God: A Global Introduction'' by [[Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen]] 2004 {{ISBN|0801027527}} pages 70–73</ref> By the middle of the 2nd century, in ''Against Heresies'', [[Irenaeus]] had emphasized (in Book 4, chapter 5)<ref>[[Wikisource:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume I/IRENAEUS/Against Heresies: Book IV/Chapter V.|''Against Heresies'', Book 4, chapter 5]]</ref> that [[Creator deity|the Creator]] is the "one and only God" and the "maker of heaven and earth".<ref name=Veli70/> These preceded the formal presentation of the concept of [[Trinity]] by [[Tertullian]] early in the 3rd century.<ref name=Veli70/>

The period from the late 2nd century to the beginning of the 4th century (approximately 180–313) is generally called the "epoch of the [[Great Church]]" and also the [[Ante-Nicene Period]], and witnessed significant theological development, and the consolidation and formalization of a number of Christian teachings.<ref name=Rahner375>Peter Stockmeier in the ''Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise Sacramentum Mundi'' edited by [[Karl Rahner]] {{ISBN|0860120066}} (New York: Sea-bury Press, 1975) page 375-376: "In the following period, c. 180–313, these structures already determine essentially the image of the Church which claims a universal mission in the Roman Empire. It has rightly been termed the period of the Great Church, in view of its numerical growth, its constitutional development and its intense theological activity."</ref>

From the 2nd century onward, [[Western Church|western]] creeds started with an affirmation of belief in "God the Father (Almighty)" and the primary reference of this phrase was to "God in his capacity as Father and creator of the universe".<ref name="Kelly">Kelly, J.N.D. ''Early Christian Creeds'' Longmans:1960, p.136; p.139; p.195 respectively</ref> This did not exclude either the fact the "eternal father of the universe was also the Father of Jesus the Christ" or that he had even "vouchsafed to adopt [the believer] as his son by grace".<ref name="Kelly" /> [[Eastern Church|Eastern]] creeds (those known to have come from a later date) began with an affirmation of faith in "one God" and almost always expanded this by adding "the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible" or words to that effect.<ref name="Kelly" />

[[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], and other Christian theologians have described God with the Latin term {{lang|la|ipsum esse}}, a phrase that translates roughly to "being itself".<ref>{{Citation|chapter=St Augustine and Being|title=Journal of the History of Philosophy|date=19 August 1968 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=79–80 |doi=10.1353/hph.1968.a229574 |s2cid=169898847 | chapter-url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/229574/summary}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|chapter=Saint Thomas Aquinas|title=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|year=2018 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aquinas/}}</ref> God's [[aseity]] makes the Christian God not "a being" but rather "being itself", and can be explained by phrases such as "that which is with no reliance on anything external for its being" or "the necessary condition for anything to exist at all".

As time passed, theologians and philosophers developed more precise understandings of the nature of God and began to produce systematic lists of his attributes. These varied in detail, but traditionally the attributes fell into two groups: those based on ''negation'' (that God is impassible) and those positively based on ''eminence'' (that God is infinitely good).<ref name="Hirschberger"/> [[Ian Ramsey]] suggested that there are three groups, and that some attributes, such as ''simplicity'' and ''perfection'', have a different logical dynamic which from such attributes as ''infinite goodness'' since there are relative forms of the latter but not of the former.<ref>Ian T. Ramsey, ''Religious Language'' SCM 1967, pp.50ff</ref>

=== Name ===
{{Main article|Names of God in Christianity}}
[[File:Jhwh4.jpg|thumb|The [[Tetragrammaton]] YHWH, the name of God written in Hebrew, old church of [[Ragunda]], Sweden]]

In Christian theology, the name of God has always held deeper significance than purely being a label, considered instead to have divine origin and be based upon divine revelation.<ref name=Systematic47>''Systematic Theology'' by [[Louis Berkhof]] (24 September 1996) {{ISBN|0802838200}} pages47-51</ref><ref name=mercer336 >''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 {{ISBN|0-86554-373-9}} page 336</ref> The Bible usually uses the name of God in the singular (e.g., Exodus 20:7<ref>{{Bibleverse|Exodus|20:7}}</ref> or Psalms 8:1),<ref>{{Bibleverse|Ps.|8:1}}</ref> generally using the terms in a very general sense rather than referring to any special designation of God.<ref name="Berkhof">''Manual Of Christian Doctrine'' by Louis Berkhof (1 August 2007), {{ISBN|1930367902}}, pages 19–23.</ref> However, general references to the name of God may branch to other special forms which express his multifaceted attributes.<ref name="Berkhof"/> The Old Testament reveals [[Tetragrammaton|YHWH]] (often vocalized with vowels as "Yahweh" or "Jehovah") as the personal name of God, along with certain titles including [[Elyon|El Elyon]] and [[El Shaddai]].<ref name="Parke-Taylor2006">{{cite book |last1=Parke-Taylor |first1=G. H. |title=Yahweh: The Divine Name in the Bible |date=1 January 2006 |publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]] |isbn=978-0-88920-652-6 |page=4 |language=en|quote=The Old Testament contains various titles and surrogates for God, such as El Shaddai, El Elyon, Haqqadosh (The Holy One), and Adonai. In chapter three, consideration will be given to names ascribed to God in the patriarchal period. Gerhard von Rad reminds us that these names became secondary after the name YHWH had been known to Israel, for "these rudimentary names which derive from old traditions, and from the oldest of them, never had the function of extending the name so as to stand alongside the name Jahweh to serve as fuller forms of address; rather, they were occasionally made use of in place of the name Jahweh." In this respect YHWH stands in contrast to the principal deities of the Babylonians and the Egyptians. "Jahweh had only one name; Marduk had fifty with which his praises as victor over Tiamat were sung in hymns. Similarly, the Egyptian god Re is the god with many names.}}</ref><ref name="USCCB2008">{{cite web |title=The Name of God in the Liturgy |url=http://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-worship/the-mass/frequently-asked-questions/the-name-of-god-in-the-liturgy.cfm |publisher=[[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops]] |language=en |year=2008|quote=…pronouncing the God of Israel's proper name," known as the holy or divine tetragrammaton, written with four consonants, YHWH, in the Hebrew alphabet. In order to vocalize it, it is necessary to introduce vowels that alter the written and spoken forms of the name (i.e. "Yahweh" or "Jehovah").}}</ref> [[Jah]] or Yah is an abbreviation of Jahweh/Yahweh/Jehovah; it is often used by Christians in the interjection [[Hallelujah]], meaning "Praise Jah", which is used to give God glory.<ref name="Loewen2020">{{cite book |last1=Loewen |first1=Jacob A. |title=The Bible in Cross Cultural Perspective |date=1 June 2020 |publisher=William Carey Publishing |isbn=978-1-64508-304-7 |page=182 |language=English|quote=Shorter forms of Yahweh: The name Yahweh also appears in a shortened form, transliterated Jah (pronounced Yah) in the Revised Version and the American Standard Version, either in the text or footnote: "my song is Jah" (Ex 15:2); "by Jah, his name" (Ps 68:4); "I shall not see Jah in Jah's land (Is 38:11). It is common also in such often untranslated compounds as hallelujah 'praise Jah' (Ps 135:3; 146:10, 148:14), and in proper names like Elijah, 'my God is Jah,' Adonijah, 'my Lord is Jah,' Isaiah, 'Jah has saved.'|edition=Revised }}</ref> In the New Testament, ''Theos'', ''[[Kyrios]]'', and ''Pater'' ({{lang|grc|πατήρ}}, "father" in [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]) are additional words used to reference God.<ref name="GreenMcKnightMarshall1992">{{cite book |last1=Green |first1=Joel B. |last2=McKnight |first2=Scot |last3=Marshall |first3=I. Howard |title=Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship |date=18 February 1992 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-1777-1 |page=271 |language=en|quote=Many of the uses of ''kyrios'' for God are in citations of the OT and in expressions derived from the OT (e.g., "angel of the Lord"), and in these passages the term functions as the Greek translation of the Hebrew OT name for God, Yahweh. For example, twenty-five of the uses of ''kyrios'' for God in Luke are in the first two chapters, where the phrasing is so heavily influenced by the OT. The third frequently used term for God is "Father" (''patēr''), doubtless the most familiar term for God in Christian tradition and also perhaps the most theologically significant title for God in the NT. Unlike the other terms for God already mentioned—without exception in the Synoptics, and with only a few exceptions in John--"Father" as a title for God appears only in the sayings attributed to Jesus (the Johannine exceptions are in editorial remarks by the Evangelist in 1:14, 18, a saying of Philip in 14:8 and the crowd's claim in 8:41).}}</ref><ref name="Berkhof"/>

Respect for the name of God is one of the [[Ten Commandments]], which is viewed not only as an avoidance of the improper use of the name of God, but also a commandment to exalt it, through both pious deeds and praise.<ref name=Miller>''The Ten Commandments: Interpretation: Resources for the Use of Scripture in the Church'' by [[Patrick D. Miller]] (6 August 2009) {{ISBN|0664230555}} page 111</ref> This is reflected in the first petition in the [[Lord's Prayer]] addressed to [[God the Father]]: "Hallowed be thy Name".<ref>''Theology of the New Testament'' by Georg Strecker (2000) {{ISBN|0664223362}} page 282</ref>

In the theology of the [[Early Church Fathers]], the name of God was seen as representative of the entire system of "divine truth" revealed to the faithful "that believe in his name"<ref>{{bibleverse|John|1:12}}</ref> or "walk in the name of the Lord our God"<ref>{{Bibleverse|Micah|4:5}}</ref><ref name=Pink23>''Ten Commandments'' by [[Arthur W. Pink]] (30 December 2007) {{ISBN|1589603753}} pages 23–24</ref><ref name=Cyril>''John 11–21'' (Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture) by Joel C. Elowsky (23 May 2007) {{ISBN|0830810994}} page 237</ref> In Revelation 3:12,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Revelation|3:12}}</ref> those who bear the name of God are "destined for Heaven". John 17:6<ref>{{Bibleverse|John|17:6}}</ref> presents the teachings of Jesus as the manifestation of the name of God to his disciples.<ref name=Pink23/>

John 12:27<ref>{{Bibleverse|John|12:27}}</ref> presents the sacrifice of Jesus the [[Lamb of God]], and the ensuing salvation delivered through it as the glorification of the name of God, with the voice from Heaven confirming Jesus' petition ("Father, glorify thy name") by saying: "I have both glorified it, and will glorify it again", referring to the Baptism and [[crucifixion of Jesus]].<ref name=WBC274>'' Wiersbe Bible Commentary'' by [[Warren W. Wiersbe]] (1 November 2007), {{ISBN|0781445396}}, page 274.</ref>

=== {{anchor|Attributes and nature of God}}Attributes and nature ===
{{Main article|Attributes of God in Christianity}}
{{Attributes of God}}
The theological underpinnings of the attributes and nature of God have been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity. In the 2nd century, [[Irenaeus]] addressed the issue and expounded on some attributes; for example, Book IV, chapter 19 of ''Against Heresies''<ref>([[Wikisource:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume I/IRENAEUS/Against Heresies: Book IV/Chapter XIX.|Book IV, Chapter 19]]</ref> states: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things".<ref name=Irena27>''Irenaeus of Lyons'' by Eric Francis Osborn (26 November 2001) {{ISBN|0521800064}} pages 27–29</ref> Irenaeus based his attributes on three sources: Scripture, prevailing mysticism and popular piety.<ref name=Irena27/> Today, some of the attributes associated with God continue to be based on statements in the Bible, such as the [[Lord's Prayer]], which states that the Father is in Heaven, while other attributes are derived from theological reasoning.<ref name=SGuthrie>''Christian Doctrine'' by [[Shirley C. Guthrie]] (1 July 1994) {{ISBN|0664253687}}</ref>{{rp|111, 100}}

In the 8th century, [[John of Damascus]] listed eighteen attributes for God in his ''An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith'' (Book 1, chapter 8).<ref>[[Wikisource:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume IX/John of Damascus/An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith/Book I/Chapter 8|Book 1, Chapter 8]]</ref><ref name=Globe352>''Global Dictionary of Theology'' by William A. Dyrness, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Juan F. Martinez and Simon Chan (10 October 2008), {{ISBN|0830824545}}, pages 352–353.</ref> These eighteen attributes were divided into four groups based on time (such as being everlasting), space (such as being boundless), matter or quality and the list continues to be influential to date, partially appearing in some form in various modern formulations.<ref name=Globe352/> In the 13th century, [[Thomas Aquinas]] focused on a shorter list of just eight attributes, namely ''simplicity'', ''perfection'', ''goodness'', ''incomprehensibility'', ''omnipresence'', ''immutability'', ''eternity'' and ''oneness''.<ref name=Globe352/> Other formulations include the 1251 list of the [[Fourth Lateran Council]], which was then adopted at [[Vatican I]] in 1870 and the [[Westminster Shorter Catechism]] in the 17th century.<ref name=Globe352/>

Two attributes of God that place him above the world, yet acknowledge his involvement in the world, are [[Transcendence (philosophy)#Religious definition|transcendence]] and [[immanence]].<ref name="Theokritoff 2010"/><ref name="Young 2008"/><ref name="Cross-Livingstone 2005"/> Transcendence means that God is eternal and infinite, not controlled by the created world and beyond human events.<ref name="Theokritoff 2010"/> Immanence means that God is involved in the world, and Christian teachings have long acknowledged his attention to human affairs.<ref name="Theokritoff 2010"/> However, unlike [[Pantheism|pantheistic]] religions, in Christianity, God's being is not of the substance of the created universe.<ref name="Theokritoff 2010"/>

Traditionally, some theologians such as [[Louis Berkhof]] distinguish between the ''communicable'' attributes (those that human beings can also have) and the ''incommunicable'' attributes (those that belong to God alone).<ref name="Berkhof"/> However, others such as [[Donald Macleod (theologian)|Donald Macleod]] hold that all the suggested classifications are artificial and without basis.<ref>[[Donald Macleod (theologian)|Donald Macleod]], ''Behold Your God'' ([[Christian Focus Publications]], 1995), pages 20–21.</ref>

There is a general agreement among theologians that it would be a mistake to conceive of the essence of God existing by itself and independently of the attributes or of the attributes being an additional characteristic of the Divine Being. They are essential qualities which exist permanently in his very Being and are co-existent with it. Any alteration in them would imply an alteration in the essential being of God.<ref name="Berkhof"/>

Hick suggests that when listing the attributes of God, the starting point should be his ''self-existence'' ("aseity") which implies his eternal and unconditioned nature. Hick goes on to consider the following additional attributes: ''Creator'' being the source of all that composes his creation ({{lang|la|"creatio ex nihilo"}}) and the sustainer of what he has brought into being; ''personal''; ''loving, good''; and ''holy''.<ref>John H. Hick, ''Philosophy of Religion'' Prentice-Hall 1973, pp. 7–14</ref> Berkhof also starts with ''self-existence'' but moves on to ''immutability''; ''infinity'', which implies ''perfection'' ''eternity'' and ''omnipresence''; ''unity''. He then analyses a series of intellectual attributes: ''knowledge-omniscience''; ''wisdom''; ''veracity'' and then, the moral attributes of ''goodness'' (including love, grace, mercy and patience); ''holiness'' and ''righteousness'' before dealing finally with his ''sovereignty''.<ref>Berkhof, Louis ''Systematic Theology'', Banner of Truth 1963, pp. 57–81 & p. 46 respectively.</ref>

[[Gregory of Nyssa]] was one of the first theologians to argue, in opposition to [[Origen]], that God is ''[[Infinity|infinite]]''. His main argument for the infinity of God, which can be found in ''Against Eunomius'', is that God's goodness is limitless, and as God's goodness is [[essence|essential]], God is also limitless.<ref>''The Brill Dictionary of Gregory of Nyssa''. (Lucas Francisco Mateo-Seco and Giulio Maspero, eds.) 2010. Leiden: Brill, p. 424</ref>

===Depiction===
{{See also|Religious images in Christian theology}}
[[File:Enluminure Drogon c.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|Use of the symbolic [[Hand of God (art)|Hand of God]] in the [[Ascension of Christ|Ascension]] from the [[Drogo Sacramentary]], {{circa|850}}]]
Many early Christians believed that a number of verses within the Bible,{{efn|One example is John 1:18: "No man has seen God at any time".<ref>{{bibleverse|John|1:18}}</ref>}} were meant to apply not only to God, but to all attempts aiming to depict God.<ref name="James Cornwell page 24">James Cornwell, 2009 ''Saints, Signs, and Symbols: The Symbolic Language of Christian Art'' {{ISBN|0-8192-2345-X}} page 2</ref> However, early Christian art, such as that of the [[Dura Europos church]], displays the [[Hand of God (art)|Hand of God]], a theological symbol representing the right hand of God, and Christ himself, along with many saints, are depicted. The [[Dura Europos synagogue]] nearby has numerous instances of the Hand of God symbol throughout its extensive decorative scheme, and is the only ancient synagogue with an extant decorative scheme. Dating to the mid-3rd century, the symbol was likely adopted into [[Early Christian art]] from [[Jewish art]].

The Hand of God was common in [[Late Antique]] art in both the East and West, and remained the main way of symbolizing the actions or approval of God the Father in the West until the end of the [[Romanesque art|Romanesque period]].{{citation needed|date=December 2021}} In art depicting specific Biblical scenes, such as the [[Baptism of Jesus]], where a specific [[God the Father in Western art|representation of God the Father]] was indicated, the Hand of God was used increasingly from the [[Carolingian art|Carolingian period]] until the end of the [[Romanesque art|Romanesque]].<ref>Hachlili, Rachel. ''Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora, Part 1'', BRILL, 1998, {{ISBN|90-04-10878-5}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-10878-3}}. pp. 144–145.</ref>

The use of religious images in general continued to increase up to the end of the 7th century, to the point that in 695, upon assuming the throne, [[Byzantine emperor]] [[Justinian II]] put an image of Christ on the obverse side of his gold coins, resulting in a rift which ended the use of [[Byzantine]] coin types in the Islamic world.<ref>Robin Cormack, 1985 ''Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons'', {{ISBN|0-540-01085-5}}</ref> However, the increase in religious imagery did not include depictions of God the Father. For instance, while the eighty second canon of the [[Council of Trullo]] in 692 did not specifically condemn images of the Father, it suggested that [[icon]]s of Christ were preferred over Old Testament shadows and figures.<ref>Steven Bigham, 1995 ''Image of God the Father in Orthodox Theology and Iconography'' {{ISBN|1-879038-15-3}} page 27</ref>
[[File:God the Father with His Right Hand Raised in Blessing.jpg|thumb|''God the Father with His Right Hand Raised in Blessing'', with a triangular halo representing the Trinity, [[Girolamo dai Libri]] {{circa|1555}}]]
The beginning of the 8th century witnessed the suppression and destruction of religious icons as the [[Byzantine iconoclasm]] (literally, "image struggle" or "war on icons") began. Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] (717–741) suppressed the use of icons by imperial edict of the Byzantine Empire, presumably due to a military loss which he attributed to the undue veneration of icons.<ref>According to accounts by Patriarch Nikephoros and the chronicler Theophanes.</ref> The edict (which was issued without consulting the church) forbade the veneration of religious images, but did not apply to other forms of art, including the image of the emperor, or religious symbols such as the cross.<ref>Warren Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford University Press, 1997</ref> Theological arguments against icons then began to appear with [[Iconoclasm|iconoclasts]] arguing that icons could not represent both the divine and the human natures of Jesus at the same time. In this atmosphere, no public depictions of God the Father were even attempted and such depictions only began to appear two centuries later.

The [[Second Council of Nicaea]] in 787 effectively ended the first period of Byzantine iconoclasm and restored the honouring of icons and holy images in general.<ref>Edward Gibbon, 1995 ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' {{ISBN|0-679-60148-1}} page 1693</ref> However, this did not immediately translate into large scale depictions of God the Father. Even supporters of the use of icons in the 8th century, such as [[John of Damascus]], drew a distinction between images of God the Father and those of Christ.

In his treatise ''On the Divine Images'', John of Damascus wrote: "In former times, God who is without form or body, could never be depicted. But now when God is seen in the flesh conversing with men, I make an image of the God whom I see".<ref>St. John of Damascus, ''Three Treatises on the Divine Images'' {{ISBN|0-88141-245-7}}</ref> The implication is that insofar as God the Father or the Spirit did not become man, visible and tangible images and portrait icons would be inaccurate, and that what was true for the whole Trinity before Christ remains true for the Father and the Spirit, but not for the Word.{{explain|date=December 2021}} John of Damascus wrote:<ref>Steven Bigham, 1995 ''Image of God the Father in Orthodox Theology and Iconography'' {{ISBN|1-879038-15-3}} page 29</ref><blockquote>
If we attempt to make an image of the invisible God, this would be sinful indeed. It is impossible to portray one who is without body: invisible, uncircumscribed and without form.
</blockquote>

Around 790, [[Charlemagne]] ordered a set of four books that became known as the [[Libri Carolini]] ("Charles' books") to refute what his court mistakenly understood to be the iconoclast decrees of the Byzantine [[Second Council of Nicaea]] regarding sacred images. Although not well known during the Middle Ages, these books describe the key elements of the Catholic theological position on sacred images. To the [[Western Church]], images were just objects made by craftsmen, to be utilized for stimulating the senses of the faithful, and to be respected for the sake of the subject represented, not in themselves.

The [[Council of Constantinople (869)]] (considered ecumenical by the Western Church, but not the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Church]]) reaffirmed the decisions of the Second Council of Nicaea and helped stamp out any remaining coals of iconoclasm. Specifically, its third canon required the image of Christ to have veneration equal with that of a Gospel book:<ref>Gesa Elsbeth Thiessen, 2005 ''Theological aesthetics'' {{ISBN|0-8028-2888-4}} page 65</ref><blockquote>
We decree that the sacred image of our Lord Jesus Christ, the liberator and Savior of all people, must be venerated with the same honor as is given the book of the holy Gospels. For as through the language of the words contained in this book all can reach salvation, so, due to the action which these images exercise by their colors, all wise and simple alike, can derive profit from them.
</blockquote>

Images of God the Father were not directly addressed in Constantinople in 869. A list of permitted icons was enumerated at this Council, but symbols of God the Father were not among them.<ref>Steven Bigham, 1995 ''Image of God the Father in Orthodox Theology and Iconography'' {{ISBN|1-879038-15-3}} page 41</ref> However, the general acceptance of icons and holy images began to create an atmosphere in which God the Father could be symbolized.

Prior to the 10th century, no attempt was made to use a human figure to symbolize [[God the Father]] in [[Western art]].<ref name="James Cornwell page 24" /> Yet, Western art eventually required some way to illustrate the presence of the Father, so through successive representations a set of artistic styles for symbolizing the Father using a man gradually emerged around the 10th century. A rationale for the use of a human figure is the belief that God created the soul of Man in the image of his own (thus allowing humanity to transcend the other animals).

It appears that when early artists designed to represent God the Father, fear and awe restrained them from a usage of the whole human figure. Typically only a small part would be used as the image, usually the hand, or sometimes the face, but rarely a whole human figure. In many images, the figure of the Son supplants the Father, so a smaller portion of the person of the Father is depicted.<ref name="Adolphe Napoléon Didron pages 169">Adolphe Napoléon Didron, 2003 ''Christian iconography: or The history of Christian art in the middle ages'' {{ISBN|0-7661-4075-X}} pages 169</ref>
[[File:Andrea_del_Verrocchio,_Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Baptism_of_Christ_-_Uffizi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|Depiction of two hands of God and the Holy Spirit as a dove in ''[[The Baptism of Christ (Verrocchio)|The Baptism of Christ]]'' by [[Andrea del Verrocchio]] and [[Leonardo da Vinci]], 1472]]

By the 12th century depictions of God the Father had started to appear in French [[illuminated manuscript]]s, which as a less public form could often be more adventurous in their iconography, and in [[stained glass]] church windows in England. Initially the head or bust was usually shown in some form of frame of clouds in the top of the picture space, where the Hand of God had formerly appeared; the [[Baptism of Jesus|Baptism of Christ]] on the famous [[Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège|baptismal font in Liège]] of [[Rainer of Huy]] is an example from 1118 (a Hand of God is used in another scene). Gradually the amount of the human symbol shown can increase to a half-length figure, then a full-length, usually enthroned, as in [[Giotto]]'s [[fresco]] of c. 1305 in [[Padua]].<ref name="ReferenceA">[[Arena Chapel]], at the top of the triumphal arch, ''God sending out the angel of the Annunciation''. See Schiller, I, fig 15</ref>

In the 14th century the [[Naples Bible]] carried a depiction of God the Father in the [[Burning bush]]. By the early 15th century, the [[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry]] has a considerable number of symbols, including an elderly but tall and elegant full-length figure walking in the [[Garden of Eden]], which show a considerable diversity of apparent ages and dress. The [[Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence)#Lorenzo Ghiberti|"Gates of Paradise" of the Florence Baptistry]] by [[Lorenzo Ghiberti]], begun in 1425 use a similar tall full-length symbol for the Father. The [[Rohan Book of Hours]] of about 1430 also included depictions of God the Father in half-length human form, which were now becoming standard, and the Hand of God becoming rarer. At the same period other works, like the large Genesis [[altarpiece]] by the Hamburg painter [[Meister Bertram]], continued to use the old depiction of Christ as ''Logos'' in Genesis scenes. In the 15th century there was a brief fashion for depicting all three persons of the Trinity as [[Trinity#Less common types of depiction|similar or identical figures with the usual appearance of Christ]].

In an early Venetian school [[Coronation of the Virgin]] by [[Giovanni d'Alemagna]] and [[Antonio Vivarini]], (c. 1443) The Father is depicted using the symbol consistently used by other artists later, namely a patriarch, with benign, yet powerful countenance and with long white hair and a beard, a depiction largely derived from, and justified by, the near-physical, but still figurative, description of the [[Ancient of Days]].<ref>Bigham Chapter 7</ref>

: ...the Ancient of Days did sit, whose garment was white as snow, and the hair of his head like the pure wool: his throne was like the fiery flame, and his wheels as burning fire. ([[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 7:9)

In the ''Annunciation'' by [[Benvenuto di Giovanni]] in 1470, God the Father is portrayed in the red robe and a hat that resembles that of a Cardinal. However, even in the later part of the 15th century, the symbolic representation of the Father and the Holy Spirit as "hands and dove" continued, e.g. in [[The Baptism of Christ (Verrocchio)|Verrocchio's Baptism of Christ]] in 1472.<ref>Arthur de Bles, 2004 ''How to Distinguish the Saints in Art by Their Costumes, Symbols and Attributes'' {{ISBN|1-4179-0870-X}} page 32</ref>

In Renaissance paintings of the adoration of the Trinity, God may be depicted in two ways, either with emphasis on The Father, or the three elements of the Trinity. The most usual depiction of the Trinity in Renaissance art depicts God the Father using an old man, usually with a long beard and patriarchal in appearance, sometimes with a triangular [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]] (as a reference to the Trinity), or with a [[papal crown]], specially in Northern Renaissance painting. In these depictions, the Father may hold a globe or book (to symbolize God's knowledge and as a reference to how knowledge is deemed divine). He is behind and above Christ on the Cross in the [[Throne of Mercy]] iconography. A dove, the symbol of the Holy Spirit may hover above.<ref>[https://news.artnet.com/market/introduction-to-medieval-iconography-32889 Bourlier, Cyriil. "Introduction to Medieval Iconography", ''Artnet News'', October 28, 2013]</ref> Various people from different classes of society, e.g. kings, popes or martyrs may be present in the picture. In a Trinitarian [[pietà]], God the Father is often symbolized using a man wearing a papal dress and a papal crown, supporting the dead Christ in his arms. They are depicted as floating in heaven with angels who carry the [[instruments of the Passion]].<ref>Irene Earls, 1987 ''Renaissance art: a topical dictionary'' {{ISBN|0-313-24658-0}} pages 8 and 283</ref>
{{multiple image
|total_width=300
|align=right
|direction=vertical
|image1=The Creation of Adam.jpg
|image2=Creación de Adán-crop.jpg
|footer=The famous ''[[The Creation of Adam]]'' by [[Michelangelo]] (''below'', detail of the hand of God), c. 1512
}}
Representations of God the Father and the Trinity were attacked both by Protestants and within Catholicism, by the [[Jansenist]] and [[Baianist]] movements as well as more orthodox theologians. As with other attacks on Catholic imagery, this had the effect both of reducing church support for the less central depictions, and strengthening it for the core ones. In the [[Catholic Church]], the pressure to restrain religious imagery resulted in the highly influential decrees of the final session of the [[Council of Trent]] in 1563. The Council of Trent decrees confirmed the traditional Catholic doctrine that images only represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person, not the image.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.hanover.edu/texts/trent/ct25.html|title=CT25|access-date=30 December 2016}}</ref> The Council also reserved the right of bishops, and in cases of new artistic novelties, the Pope, to suppress images deemed non-canonical or heretical.

Traditional artistic depictions of God the Father which followed the conventions of the church were relatively uncontroversial in Catholic art thereafter, but less common, unusual depictions of the [[Trinity]] were condemned. In 1745 [[Pope Benedict XIV]] explicitly supported the [[Throne of Mercy]] depiction, referring to the "Ancient of Days", but in 1786 it was still necessary for [[Pope Pius VI]] to issue a [[papal bull]] condemning the decision of an Italian church council to remove all images of the Trinity from churches, including standard canonical ones.<ref>Bigham, 73–76</ref>

God the Father is symbolized in several Genesis scenes in [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]], most famously ''[[The Creation of Adam]]'' (whose image of near touching hands of God and Adam is iconic of humanity, being a reminder that Man is created in the Image and Likeness of God ({{Bibleref2|Gen|1:26|NRSV}})).God the Father is depicted as a powerful figure, floating in the clouds in [[Assumption of the Virgin (Titian)|Titian's ''Assumption of the Virgin'']] in the [[Frari of Venice]], long admired as a masterpiece of [[High Renaissance]] art.<ref>Louis Lohr Martz, 1991 ''From Renaissance to baroque: essays on literature and art'' {{ISBN|0-8262-0796-0}} page 222</ref> The [[Church of the Gesù]] in Rome includes a number of 16th century depictions of [[God the Father]]. In some of these paintings the [[Trinity]] is still alluded to in terms of three angels, but [[Giovanni Battista Fiammeri]] also depicted God the Father as a man riding on a cloud, above the scenes.<ref>Gauvin A. Bailey, 2003 ''Between Renaissance and Baroque: Jesuit art in Rome'' {{ISBN|0-8020-3721-6}} page 233</ref>

[[File:RubensLastJudgeDetail.jpg|thumb|right|Rubens' ''Last Judgment'' (detail), 1617]]
In several of his painting, such as the ''[[The Great Last Judgement (Rubens)|Last Judgment]]'', [[Rubens]] depicted God the Father using the image that by then had become widely accepted—a bearded patriarchal figure above the fray.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Esposito |first1=Teresa |title=Ignis artificiosus. Images of God and the Universe in Rubens's Depiction of Antique Shields |journal=Early Modern Low Countries |date=11 December 2018 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=244 |doi=10.18352/emlc.70 |doi-access=free }}</ref> While representations of God the Father were growing in Italy, Spain, Germany and the Low Countries, there was resistance elsewhere in Europe, even during the 17th century. In 1632 most members of the [[Star Chamber]] court in England (except the [[Archbishop of York]]) condemned the use of the images of the Trinity in church windows, and some considered them illegal.<ref>Charles Winston, 1847 ''An Inquiry Into the Difference of Style Observable in Ancient Glass Paintings, Especially in England'' {{ISBN|1-103-66622-3}}, (2009) page 229</ref> Later in the 17th century [[Sir Thomas Browne]] wrote that he considered the representation of God the Father using an old man "a dangerous act" that might lead to, in his words, "Egyptian symbolism".<ref name=":2">Sir Thomas Browne's Works, 1852, {{ISBN|0559376871}}, 2006 page 156</ref> In 1847, [[Charles Winston]] was still critical of such images as a "[[Romish]] trend" (a derisive term used to refer to Roman Catholics) that he considered best avoided in England.<ref>Charles Winston, 1847 ''An Inquiry Into the Difference of Style Observable in Ancient Glass Paintings, Especially in England'' {{ISBN|1-103-66622-3}}, (2009) page 230</ref>

In 1667 the 43rd chapter of the [[Great Moscow Synod|Great Moscow Council]] specifically included a ban on a number of symbolic depictions of God the Father and the Holy Spirit, which then also resulted in a whole range of other icons being placed on the forbidden list,<ref>Oleg Tarasov, 2004 ''Icon and devotion: sacred spaces in Imperial Russia'' {{ISBN|1-86189-118-0}} page 185</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://genuineorthodoxchurch.com/moscow_1666.htm|title=Council of Moscow – 1666–1667|access-date=30 December 2016}}</ref> mostly affecting Western-style depictions which had been gaining ground in Orthodox icons. The Council also declared that the person of the Trinity who was the "Ancient of Days" was Christ, as ''Logos'', not God the Father. However some icons continued to be produced in [[Russia]], as well as [[Greece]], [[Romania]], and other [[Eastern Orthodoxy by country|Orthodox Christian-majority countries]].

== Kingdom of God and eschatology ==


=== Kingship and Kingdom ===
{{Main article|Kingdom of God (Christianity)}}
[[File:Gottvater thronend Westfalen 15 Jh.jpg|thumb|upright|God the Father on a throne, [[Westphalia]], Germany, late 15th century]]
The Christian characterization of the relationship between God and humanity involves
the notion of the "Kingship of God", whose origins go back to the Old Testament, and may be seen as a consequence of the creation of the world by God.<ref name=Image478/><ref name=Mercer490>''Mercer Dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Edgar V. McKnight and Roger A. Bullard (1 May 2001) {{ISBN|0865543739}} page 490</ref> The "enthronement psalms" ([[Psalms]] [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Psalms#45|45]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Psalms#93|93]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Psalms#96|96]],
[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Psalms#97|97–99]]) provide a background for this view with the exclamation "The Lord is King".<ref name=Image478/> However, in later Judaism a more "national" view was assigned to God's Kingship in which the awaited Messiah may be seen as a liberator and the founder of a new state of Israel.<ref>''Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise Sacramentum Mundi'' by Karl Rahner (28 December 2004) {{ISBN|0860120066}} page 1351</ref>

The term "Kingdom of God" does not appear in the Old Testament, although "his Kingdom" and "your Kingdom" are used in some cases when referring to God.<ref>''Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of the Bible'' by Kevin J. Vanhoozer, N. T. Wright, Daniel J. Treier and Craig Bartholomew (20 Jan 2006) {{ISBN|0801026946}} page 420</ref> However, the Kingdom of God (the Matthean equivalent being "[[Kingdom of heaven (Gospel of Matthew)|Kingdom of Heaven]]") is a prominent phrase in the [[Synoptic Gospels]] (appearing 75 times), and there is near unanimous agreement among scholars that it represents a key element of the teachings of Jesus.<ref name=Image478>''Dictionary of Biblical Imagery'' by Leland Ryken, James C. Wilhoit and Tremper Longman III (11 November 1998) {{ISBN|0830814515}} pages 478–479</ref><ref name=FranceK1/> Yet, [[R. T. France]] points out that while the concept of "Kingdom of God" has an intuitive meaning to lay Christians, there is hardly any agreement among scholars about its meaning in the New Testament.<ref name=FranceK1>''Divine Government: God's Kingship in the Gospel of Mark'' by [[R. T. France]] (10 Mar 2003) {{ISBN|1573832448}} pages 1–3</ref> Some scholars see it as a Christian lifestyle, some as a method of world evangelization, some as the rediscovery of charismatic gifts, others relate it to no present or future situation, but the [[world to come]].<ref name=FranceK1/> France states that the phrase Kingdom of God is often interpreted in many ways to fit the theological agenda of those interpreting it.<ref name=FranceK1/>

=== End times ===
{{Main|Christian eschatology}}

Interpretations of the term Kingdom of God have given rise to wide-ranging [[Christian eschatology|eschatological debates]] among scholars with diverging views, yet no consensus has emerged among scholars.<ref name=familiar77/><ref name=Chil255>''Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research'' by Bruce Chilton and Craig A. Evans (Jun 1998) {{ISBN|9004111425}} pages 255–257</ref><ref name=Royce246>''An Introduction to the New Testament and the Origins of Christianity'' by Delbert Royce Burkett (22 July 2002) {{ISBN|0521007208}} page 246</ref> From [[Augustine]] to the [[Protestant Reformation]] the arrival of the Kingdom had been identified with the formation of the Christian Church, but this view was later abandoned and by the beginning of the 20th century the [[Apocalypticism|apocalyptic interpretation]] of the Kingdom had gained ground.<ref name=familiar77>''Familiar Stranger: An Introduction to Jesus of Nazareth'' by Michael James McClymond (22 March 2004) {{ISBN|0802826806}} pages 77–79</ref><ref name=Royce246/><ref name=Ladd55>''A Theology of the New Testament'' by [[George Eldon Ladd]] (2 September 1993) {{ISBN|0802806805}} pages 55–57</ref> In this view (also called the "consistent eschatology") the Kingdom of God did not start in the 1st century, but is a future apocalyptic event that is yet to take place.<ref name=familiar77/>

[[File:Langenzenn Stadtkirche - Fenster Wilhelm II 3.jpg|thumb|upright|An angel blows the "last trumpet", as in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#15:52|1 Corinthians 15:52]], [[Langenzenn]], Germany, 19th century]]
By the middle of the 20th century, [[realized eschatology]], which in contrast viewed the Kingdom as non-apocalyptic but as the manifestation of divine sovereignty over the world (realized by the [[ministry of Jesus]]), had gathered a scholarly following.<ref name=familiar77/> In this view the Kingdom is held to be available in the present.<ref name=Chil255/> The competing approach of [[Inaugurated eschatology]] was later introduced as the "already and not yet" interpretation.<ref name=familiar77/> In this view the Kingdom has already started, but awaits full disclosure at a future point.<ref name=Chil255/> These diverging interpretations have since given rise to a good number of variants, with various scholars proposing new eschatological models that borrow elements from these.<ref name=familiar77/><ref name=Chil255/>

=== Judgement ===
{{see also|Last Judgement}}

[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Hebrews#12:23|Hebrews 12:23]] refers to "God the Judge of all", and the notion that all humans will eventually "[[Last judgment|be judged]]" is an essential element of Christian teachings.<ref name=Millard391/> A number of New Testament passages (e.g., {{Bibleref2|John|5:22}} and {{Bibleref2|Acts|10:42}}) and later [[creed|credal confessions]] indicate that the task of judgement is assigned to Jesus.<ref name=Millard391/><ref name=Pann390>''Systematic Theology'' Vol 2 by [[Wolfhart Pannenberg]] (27 October 2004) {{ISBN|0567084663}} pages 390–391</ref> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#5:22|John 5:22]] states that "neither does the Father judge any man, but he has given all judgment unto the Son".<ref name=Millard391>''Introducing Christian Doctrine'' (2nd Edition) by [[Millard J. Erickson]] (1 April 2001) {{ISBN|0801022509}} pages 391–392</ref> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#10:42|Acts 10:42]] refers to the resurrected Jesus as: "he who is ordained of God to be the Judge of the living and the dead."<ref name=Millard391/> The role played by Jesus in the judgement of God is emphasized in the most widely used Christian confessions, with the [[Nicene Creed]] stating that Jesus "sits on the right hand of the Father; shall come again, with glory, to judge the living and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end".<ref name=Metz157/> The [[Apostles' Creed]] includes a similar confession.<ref name=Metz157>''The Oxford Companion to the Bible'' by Bruce M. Metzger and Michael David Coogan (14 October 1993) ISBN page 157</ref>

A number of gospel passages warn against sin and suggest a path of righteousness to avoid the judgement of God.<ref name=Kittle936/> For instance, the [[Sermon on the Mount]] in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#5:22|Matthew 5:22–26]] teaches the avoidance of sin and the Parables of the Kingdom ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#13:49|Matthew 13:49]]) state that at the moment of judgement the angels will "sever the wicked from among the righteous and shall cast them into the furnace of fire".<ref name=Kittle936/> Christians can thus enjoy forgiveness that lifts them from the judgement of God by following the teachings of Jesus and through a personal fellowship with him.<ref name=Kittle936>''Theological Dictionary of the New Testament'' (Volume III) by Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich (Jun 1966) {{ISBN|0802822452}} pages 936</ref>

== Trinitarianism ==
{{Main article|Trinity}}

=== History and foundation ===
{{Further|Trinitarianism in the Church Fathers}}
In early Christianity, the concept of salvation was closely related to the invocation of the "Father, Son and Holy Spirit".<ref name="Vickers2"/><ref name=PCPhan3>''The Cambridge Companion to the Trinity'' by Peter C. Phan 2011 {{ISBN|0521701139}} pages 3–4</ref> Since the 1st century, Christians have called upon God with the name "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" in prayer, baptism, communion, exorcism, hymn-singing, preaching, confession, absolution and benediction.<ref name="Vickers2">Vickers, Jason E. ''Invocation and Assent: The Making and the Remaking of Trinitarian Theology.'' Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2008. {{ISBN|0-8028-6269-1}} pages 2–5</ref><ref name=PCPhan3/> This is reflected in the saying: "Before there was a 'doctrine' of the Trinity, Christian prayer invoked the Holy Trinity".<ref name="Vickers2"/>

[[File:Dogmatic sarcophagus.JPG|thumb|upright|left|The earliest known depiction of the Trinity, [[Dogmatic Sarcophagus]], 350 AD<ref>Elizabeth Lev, "Dimming the Pauline Spotlight; Jubilee Fruits" [http://www.zenit.org/article-26288?l=english Zenit 2009-06-25]</ref> [[Vatican Museums]].]]
The term "Trinity" does not explicitly appear in the Bible, but Trinitarians believe the concept as later developed is consistent with biblical teachings.<ref name=mercer935/><ref name=Kelly115>Kelly, J.N.D. ''Early Christian Doctrines'' A & C Black: 1965, p 115</ref> The [[New Testament]] includes a number of the usages of the three-fold liturgical and [[doxology|doxological]] formula, e.g., [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/2 Corinthians#1:21|2 Corinthians 1:21–22]] stating: "he that establisheth us with you in Christ, and anointed us, is God; who also sealed us, and gave [us] the earnest of the Spirit in our hearts".<ref name=mercer935/><ref name=RA122/> Christ receiving "authority and co-equal divinity" is mentioned in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#28:18|Matthew 28:18]]: "All authority hath been given unto me in heaven and on earth" as well as [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#3:35|John 3:35]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#13:3|John 13:3]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#17:1|John 17:1]].<ref name=RA122/> And the Spirit being both "of God" and "of Christ" appears in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Galatians#4:6|Galatians 4:6]], the [[Book of Acts]] ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#16:7|16:7]]), [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#15:26|John 15:26]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Romans#8:14|Romans 8:14–17]].<ref name=RA122>[[Alan Richardson (priest)|Richardson, Alan]]. ''An Introduction to the Theology of the New Testament'' SCM: 1961, p122f,158</ref>

The general concept was expressed in early writings from the beginning of the 2nd century forward, with [[Irenaeus]] writing in his ''Against Heresies'' ([[Wikisource:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume I/IRENAEUS/Against Heresies: Book I/Chapter X.|Book I Chapter X]]):<ref name="Vickers2"/>

: "The Church ... believes in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven, and earth, and the sea, and all things that are in them; and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who became incarnate for our salvation; and in the Holy Spirit".

Around AD 213 in ''Adversus Praxeas'' ([[Wikisource:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume III/Anti-Marcion/Against Praxeas/III|chapter 3]]) [[Tertullian]] provided a formal representation of the concept of the [[Trinity]], i.e., that God exists as one "substance" but three "Persons": The Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit.<ref name=Olson29>''The Trinity'' by Roger E. Olson, Christopher Alan Hall 2002 {{ISBN|0802848273}} pages 29–31</ref><ref>''Tertullian, First Theologian of the West'' by Eric Osborn (4 Dec 2003) {{ISBN|0521524954}} pages 116–117</ref> In defense of the coherence of the Trinity Tertullian wrote ([[Wikisource:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume III/Anti-Marcion/Against Praxeas/III|Adversus Praxeas 3]]): "The Unity which derives the Trinity out of its own self is so far from being destroyed, that it is actually supported by it." Tertullian also discussed how the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son.<ref name=Olson29/>

The [[First Council of Nicaea]] in AD 325 and later the [[First Council of Constantinople]] in AD 381 defined the dogma "in its simplest outlines in the face of pressing [[heresy|heresies]]" and the version used thereafter dates to 381.<ref name=Fair48 >''Life in the Trinity: An Introduction to Theology with the Help of the Church Fathers'' by Donald Fairbairn (28 September 2009) {{ISBN|0830838732}} pages 48–50</ref> In the 5th century, in the [[Western Church|west]], [[Augustine of Hippo]] expanded on the theological development in his ''[[On the Trinity]]'', while the major development in the [[Eastern Church|east]] was due to [[John of Damascus]] in the 8th century.<ref name=berk83>''Systematic Theology'' by Louis Berkhof (24 September 1996) {{ISBN|0802838200}} page 83</ref> The theology eventually reached its classical form in the writings of [[Thomas Aquinas]] in the 13th century.<ref name=berk83/><ref name="ODCC-Trin" />

Bernhard Lohse (1928–1997) states that the doctrine of the Trinity does not go back to non-Christian sources such as [[Plato]] or [[Hinduism]] and that all attempts at suggesting such connections have floundered.<ref>''A Short History of Christian Doctrine'' by Bernhard Lohse 1978 {{ISBN|0800613414}} page 37</ref> The majority of Christians are now Trinitarian and regard belief in the Trinity as a test of true [[orthodoxy]] of belief.<ref name="Vickers2" />

=== The doctrine ===
[[File:Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg|thumb|right|A diagram of the [[Trinity]] consisting of [[God the Father]], [[God the Son]] (Jesus), and [[God the Holy Spirit]]]]
The doctrine of the Trinity is considered by most Christians to be a core tenet of their faith.<ref name=Behr/><ref name=Fair48 /> It can be summed up as:<ref name=Behr>''The Nicene Faith: Formation Of Christian Theology'' by John Behr (30 June 2004) {{ISBN|088141266X}} pages 3–4</ref>

: "The One God exists in Three Persons and One Substance."

Strictly speaking, the doctrine is a mystery that can "neither be known by unaided human reason", nor "cogently demonstrated by reason after it has been revealed"; even so "it is not contrary to reason" being "not incompatible with the principles of rational thought".<ref name="ODCC-Trin">''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' (1974), Cross & Livingstone (eds), art "Trinity, Doctrine of"</ref>

The doctrine was expressed at length in the 4th-century ''[[Athanasian Creed]]'' of which the following is an extract:<ref name=Fair48 /><ref name=mercer935>''Mercer Dictionary of the Bible'' edited by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 2001 {{ISBN|0865543739}} page 935</ref>

<poem style="margin-left:3em;">
We worship one God in [[Trinity]], and Trinity in Unity;
Neither confounding the persons nor dividing the substance.
For there is one Person of the Father, another of the Son, and another of the Holy Spirit.
But the [[Godhead in Christianity|Godhead]] of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, is all one; the Glory equal, the Majesty co-eternal.
Such as the Father is, such is the Son, and such is the Holy Spirit.
</poem>

To [[Trinity|Trinitarian]] Christians (which include [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Christians]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Christians]], and most [[Protestant]] denominations), God the Father is not at all a separate god from the Son and the Holy Spirit, the other [[Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|hypostases]] ("Persons") of the [[Godhead in Christianity|Christian Godhead]].<ref name=UCP>''Critical Terms for Religious Studies.'' Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998. ''Credo Reference.''27 July 2009</ref>

While "Father" and "Son" implicitly invoke masculine sex, the [[gender of God in Christianity]] has historically been treated as metaphorical, and not as representing the real nature of God.<ref>Dennis O'Neill, ''Passionate Holiness: Marginalized Christian Devotions for Distinctive Peoples'' (2010), [https://books.google.com/books?id=qjl1H9GcetMC&pg=PA8 p. 8].</ref><ref name="CCCs239">"Deum humanam sexuum transcendere distinctionem. Ille nec vir est nec femina, Ille est Deus." From "Pater per Filium revelatus", ''Catechismus Catholicae Ecclesiae''. (Citta del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1993): 1-2-1-1-2 ¶ 239. ([https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P17.HTM Official English translation] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303003725/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P17.HTM |date=3 March 2013 }})</ref>

The 20th century witnessed an increased theological focus on the doctrine of the Trinity, partly due to the efforts of [[Karl Barth]] in his four volume ''[[Church Dogmatics]]''.<ref name=PCPhan173>''The Cambridge Companion to the Trinity'' by Peter C. Phan 2011 {{ISBN|0521701139}} pages 173–174</ref> This theological focus relates the revelation of the [[Logos (Christianity)|Word of God]] to the Trinity, and argues that the doctrine of Trinity is what distinguishes the "Christian concept of God" from all other religions.<ref name=PCPhan173/><ref>''The Trinity: Global Perspectives'' by Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen (17 January 2007) {{ISBN|0664228909}} page 8</ref>

==== The Father ====
{{Main article|God the Father}}
{{see also|Paterology}}
[[File:GodInvitingChristDetail.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|[[God the Father in Western art|Depiction of God the Father]] (detail) offering the right hand throne to Christ, [[Pieter de Grebber]], 1654.]]
The emergence of Trinitarian theology of God the Father in [[early Christianity]] was based on two key ideas: first the shared identity of the [[Yahweh]] of the Old Testament and the God of Jesus in the New Testament, and then the self-distinction and yet the unity between Jesus and his Father.<ref name=Triglobal10>''The Trinity: Global Perspectives'' by Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen (17 January 2007) {{ISBN|0664228909}} pages 10–13</ref><ref name=global169>''Global Dictionary of Theology'' by William A. Dyrness, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Juan F. Martinez and Simon Chan (10 October 2008) {{ISBN|0830824545}} pages 169–171</ref> An example of the unity of Son and Father is [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#11:27|Matthew 11:27]]: "No one knows the Son except the Father and no one knows the Father except the Son", asserting the mutual knowledge of Father and Son.<ref name=Bromiley571 >''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1988 {{ISBN|0-8028-3785-9}} page 571-572</ref>

The concept of fatherhood of God does appear in the Old Testament, but is not a major theme.<ref name=Triglobal10/><ref name=Veli37/> While the view of God as the Father is used in the Old Testament, it only became a focus in the New Testament, as Jesus frequently referred to it.<ref name=Triglobal10/><ref name=Veli37/> This is manifested in the [[Lord's prayer]] which combines the earthly needs of daily bread with the reciprocal concept of forgiveness.<ref name=Veli37/> And Jesus' emphasis on his special relationship with the Father highlights the importance of the distinct yet unified natures of Jesus and the Father, building to the unity of Father and Son in the Trinity.<ref name=Veli37>''The Doctrine of God: A Global Introduction'' by Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen 2004 {{ISBN|0801027527}} pages 37–41</ref>

The paternal view of God as the Father extends beyond Jesus to his disciples, and the entire church, as reflected in the petitions Jesus submitted to the Father for his followers at the end of the ''[[Farewell Discourse]]'', the night before [[crucifixion of Jesus|his crucifixion]].<ref name=RobN26 >''Symbols of Jesus'' by Robert C. Neville (4 February 2002) {{ISBN|0521003539}} pages 26–27</ref> Instances of this in the Farewell Discourse are [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#14:20|John 14:20]] as Jesus addresses the disciples: "I am in my Father, and you in me, and I in you" and in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#17:22|John 17:22]] as he prays to the Father: "I have given them the glory that you gave me, that they may be one as we are one."<ref>''Jesus and His Own: A Commentary on John 13–17'' by Daniel B. Stevick (29 April 2011) Eeardmans {{ISBN|0802848656}} page 46</ref>

In Trinitarian theology, God the Father is the "arche" or "principium" (''beginning''), the "source" or "origin" of both the Son and the Holy Spirit, and is considered the eternal source of the Godhead.<ref name=alan36/> The Father is the one who eternally begets the Son, and the Father eternally breathes the Holy Spirit. The Son is eternally born from God the Father, and the Spirit eternally proceeds from the Father,<ref name=Veli70/><ref name=alan36>''The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology'' by Alan Richardson and John Bowden (1 January 1983) {{ISBN|0664227481}} page 36</ref> and, in the Western tradition, also [[Filioque|from the Son]].

Yet, notwithstanding this difference as to origin, Father is one with, co-equal to, co-eternal, and [[Consubstantiality|con-substantial]] with the Son and the Holy Spirit, each Person being the one eternal God and in no way separated, who is the creator: all alike are uncreated and omnipotent.<ref name=Veli70/> Thus, the Divine Unity consists of God the Father, with his Son and his Spirit distinct from God the Father and yet perfectly united together in him.<ref name=Veli70/> Because of this, the Trinity is beyond reason and can only be known by revelation.<ref>''The Oxford Handbook of the Trinity'' by Gilles Emery O. P. and Matthew Levering (27 Oct 2011) {{ISBN|0199557810}} page 263</ref><ref name=VaticanReason>Paragraphs [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p2.htm#242 242] [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p2.htm#245 245] [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p2.htm#237 237]. ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' (2nd Edition). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2012. Retrieved 23 January 2021.</ref>

Trinitarians believe that God the Father is not [[pantheism|pantheistic]], in that he is not viewed as identical to the universe, but exists outside of creation, as its Creator.<ref name=Kess68/><ref name=Bromo515/> He is viewed as a loving and caring God, a Heavenly Father who is active both in the world and in people's lives.<ref name=Kess68>''God Our Father'' by John Koessler (13 September 1999) {{ISBN|0802440681}} page 68</ref><ref name=Bromo515>''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Mar 1982) {{ISBN|0802837824}} pages 515–516</ref> He created all things visible and invisible in love and wisdom, and man for his own sake.<ref name=Kess68/><ref name=Bromo515/><ref>Paragraphs [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p6.htm#356 356] and [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p4.htm#295 295]. ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' (2nd Edition). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2012. Retrieved 23 January 2021.</ref>

==== The Son ====
{{Main article|God the Son|Son of God (Christianity)}}
{{see also|Christology|Christ the Logos|Jesus in Christianity|Person of Christ}}
[[File:Витраж в Петропавловском соборе.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Stained glass]] window of Christ, [[Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg|Peter and Paul Cathedral]], St. Petersburg, Russia.]]
Since [[early Christianity]], a number of [[Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament|titles have been attributed]] to Jesus, including, [[Messiah]] (Christ) and the [[Son of God]].<ref name=Bowden101/><ref name=Brom128 /> Theologically, these are different attributions: Messiah refers to his fulfilling the expected Old Testament prophecies, while Son of God refers to a paternal relationship.<ref name=Bowden101>''The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology'' by Alan Richardson and John Bowden (1 January 1983) {{ISBN|0664227481}} page 101</ref><ref name=Brom128>''Historical Theology: An Introduction'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 2000 {{ISBN|0567223574}} pages 128–129</ref> God the Son is distinct from both Messiah and Son of God and its theology as part of the doctrine of the Trinity was formalized well over a century after those.<ref name=Brom128 /><ref name=mini307>''Christology: Biblical And Historical'' by Mini S. Johnson {{ISBN|8183240070}} page 307</ref><ref>''The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church: A History'' by Joseph F. Kelly (1 September 2009) {{ISBN|0814653766}} pages 19–22</ref>

According to the [[Gospel]]s, Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and [[Nativity of Jesus|born]] from [[Mary, mother of Jesus|the Virgin Mary]].<ref name=Pract/> The Biblical accounts of Jesus' ministry include: [[Baptism of Jesus|his baptism]], [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]], [[Ministry of Jesus|preaching, teaching, and healing]]. The narrative of the gospels place significant emphasis on the death of Jesus, devoting about one third of the text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem.<ref name=Turner613 >''Matthew'' by David L. Turner 2008 {{ISBN|0-8010-2684-9}} page 613</ref> The core Christian belief is that through [[Crucifixion of Jesus|the death]] and [[resurrection of Jesus]], [[original sin|sinful]] humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of [[eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]].<ref name=Harris12/> The belief in the redemptive nature of Jesus' death predates the Pauline letters and goes back to the earliest days of Christianity and the [[Early centers of Christianity#Jerusalem|Jerusalem church]].<ref>''Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity'' by Larry W. Hurtado (14 September 2005) {{ISBN|0802831672}} pages 130–133</ref> The [[Nicene Creed]]'s statement that "for our sake he was crucified" is a reflection of this core belief.<ref name=Harris12>''Christian Theology'' by J. Glyndwr Harris (Mar 2002) {{ISBN|1902210220}} pages 12–15</ref>

The two Christological concerns as to how Jesus could be truly God while preserving faith in the existence of one God and how the human and the divine could be combined in one person were fundamental concerns from well before the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325).<ref name=Bromo50>''Historical Theology: An Introduction'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 2000 {{ISBN|0567223574}} pages 50–51</ref> However, the theology of "God the Son" was eventually reflected in the statement of the Nicene Creed of the 4th century.<ref>''Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World'' by G. W. Bowersock, Peter Brown and Oleg Graba 1999 {{ISBN|0674511735}} page 605</ref>

The [[Chalcedonian Definition]] of 451, accepted by the majority of Christians, holds that Jesus is [[Incarnation (Christianity)|God incarnate]] and "[[Hypostatic union|true God and true man]]" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again.<ref>''A Short History of Christian Doctrine'' by Bernhard Lohse (5 January 1978) {{ISBN|0800613414}} pages 90–93</ref> The [[Third Council of Constantinople]] in 680 then held that both divine and human wills exist in Jesus, with the divine will having precedence, leading and guiding the human will.<ref>The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology by Alan Richardson and John Bowden (1 January 1983) {{ISBN|0664227481}} page 169</ref>

In mainstream Christianity, Jesus Christ as [[God the Son]] is the [[Person of Christ|second Person]] of the Holy Trinity, due to his eternal relation to the first Person (God as Father).<ref name=Millard>''Introducing Christian Doctrine'' (2nd Edition) by Millard J. Erickson (1 April 2001) {{ISBN|0801022509}} pages 237–238</ref> He is considered coequal with the Father and Holy Spirit and is all God and all human: the Son of God as to his divine nature, while as to his human nature he is from the lineage of David.<ref name=Pract>''Practical Christian Theology:'' by Floyd H. Barackman 1998 {{ISBN|0825423740}} pages 149–151</ref><ref name=Millard/><ref>''Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise Sacramentum Mundi'' by Karl Rahner (28 December 2004) ISBN pages 692-694</ref><ref>For Biblical passages see: {{Bibleref2|Rom|1:3,4}}{{Bibleref2|Galatians|4:4}}; {{Bibleref2|John|1:1–14}};{{Bibleref2-nb|Jn|5:18–25}};{{Bibleref2-nb|Jn|10:30–38}}</ref>

More recently, discussions of the theological issues related to God the Son and its role in the Trinity were addressed in the 20th century in the context of a "Trinity-based" perspective on divine revelation.<ref>''Introduction to the Theology of Karl Barth'' by Geoffrey William Bromiley (3 November 2000) {{ISBN|0567290549}} page 19</ref><ref>''The Renewal of Trinitarian Theology: Themes, Patterns & Explorations'' by Roderick T. Leupp (1 October 2008) {{ISBN|0830828893}} page 31</ref>

==== The Holy Spirit ====
{{Main article|Holy Spirit in Christianity}}
[[File:Holy Spirit as Dove (detail).jpg|thumb|upright|left|Church [[stained glass]] representation of the Holy Spirit as a dove, [[Bernini]] c. 1660.]]
In mainstream Christianity, the Holy Spirit is one of the three divine persons of the Trinity who make up the single [[Ousia|substance]] of God; that is, the Spirit is considered to act in concert with and share an essential nature with [[God the Father]] and God the Son (Jesus).{{sfn|Kärkkäinen|2002|p=120-121}}<ref name=Pan332/> The New Testament has much to say about the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit's presence was especially felt following the ascension of Christ, although not to the exclusion of an early presence as attested by the Old Testament and throughout the New Testament.<ref name=Stagg/>{{rp|p.39}} The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit, or [[pneumatology]] (from Greek ''[[pneuma]]'' or "spirit"), was the last piece of Trinitarian theology to be fully explored and developed, and there is thus greater theological diversity among Christian understandings of the Spirit than there is among understandings of the Son and the Father.{{sfn|Kärkkäinen|2002|p=120-121}}<ref name=Pan332>''Systematic Theology Vol 1'' by Wolfhart Pannenberg (11 November 2004) {{ISBN|0567081788}} page 332</ref> Within Trinitarian theology, the Holy Spirit is usually referred to as the "Third Person" of the triune God—with the Father being the First Person and the Son the Second Person.{{sfn|Kärkkäinen|2002|p=120-121}}

Reflecting the [[Annunciation]] in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#1:35|Luke 1:35]], the early [[Apostles' Creed]] states that Jesus was "conceived by the Holy Spirit".<ref>''Invitation to Theology'' by Michael Jinkins (26 January 2001) {{ISBN|0830815627}} pages 60 and 134–135</ref> The [[Nicene Creed]] refers to the Holy Spirit as "the Lord and Giver of Life" who with the Father and the Son together is "worshiped and glorified".<ref>''Invitation to Theology'' by Michael Jinkins (26 January 2001) {{ISBN|0830815627}} page 193</ref> While in the act of the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]], [[God the Son]] became manifest as the [[Son of God]], the same did not take place for ''God the Holy Spirit'' which remained unrevealed.<ref name=Donnell >''The mystery of the Triune God'' by John Joseph O'Donnell 1988 {{ISBN|0-7220-5760-1}} page 75</ref> Yet, as in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#6:19|1 Corinthians 6:19]] God the Spirit continues to dwell in bodies of the faithful.<ref name=Donnell /><ref name=Wiersbe471 >''The Wiersbe Bible Commentary: The Complete New Testament'' by Warren W. Wiersbe 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-7814-4539-9}} page 471</ref>

In Christian theology Holy Spirit is believed to perform specific divine functions in the life of the Christian or the church. The action of the Holy Spirit is seen as an essential part of the bringing of the person to the Christian faith.<ref name=Erickson265>{{cite book| author = Millard J. Erickson| year = 1992| title = Introducing Christian Doctrine.| publisher = Baker Book House| pages = 265–270}}</ref> The new believer is "born again of the Spirit".<ref>Though the term "[[Born again (Christianity)|born again]]" is most frequently used by evangelical Christians, most denominations do consider that the new Christian is a "new creation" and "born again". See for example the Catholic Encyclopedia [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02258b.htm]</ref>

The Holy Spirit enables Christian life by dwelling in the individual believers and enables them to live a righteous and faithful life.<ref name=Erickson265/> He acts as Comforter or [[Paraclete]], one who intercedes, or supports or acts as an advocate, particularly in times of trial. He acts to convince unredeemed persons both of the sinfulness of their actions and thoughts, and of their moral standing as sinners before God.<ref>''The Holy Spirit and His Gifts''. [[J. Oswald Sanders]]. Inter-Varsity Press. chapter 5.</ref> The Holy Spirit both ''inspired'' the writing of the scriptures and now ''interprets'' them to the Christian and church.<ref>{{cite book| author = T C Hammond| editor1-last=Wright|editor1-first=David F | year = 1968| title = In Understanding be Men: A Handbook of Christian Doctrine| edition= sixth| publisher = [[Inter-Varsity Press]]| page = 134}}</ref>

=== Trinitarian differences ===
In [[Eastern Orthodox Christian theology|Eastern Orthodox theology]], [[ousia|essence]] of God being that which is beyond human comprehension and can not be defined or approached by human understanding.<ref>''The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Orthodox Church'' by [[Vladimir Lossky]] ISBN page 77</ref> Roman Catholic teachings are somewhat similar in considering the mysteries of the Trinity as being beyond human reason.<ref name=VaticanReason/> However, differences exist in that in [[Roman Catholic theology]] and teaching, God the Father is the eternal source of the Son (begot the Son by an eternal generation) and of the Holy Spirit (by an eternal procession [[Filioque|from the Father and the Son]]) and the one who breathes the Holy Spirit with and through the Son, but the Eastern Orthodox consider the Spirit to proceed from the Father alone.<ref>''Systematic Theology'' by Francis Schussler Fiorenza and John P. Galvin (1 May 2011) {{ISBN|0800662911}} pages 193–194</ref>

Most [[Protestant denominations]] and other traditions arising since the [[Reformation]] hold general Trinitarian beliefs and theology regarding God the Father similar to that of Roman Catholicism. This includes churches arising from [[Anabaptism]], [[Anglicanism]], [[Baptist]], [[Lutheranism]], [[Methodism]], [[Moravian Church|Moravianim]], [[Plymouth Brethren]], [[Quakerism]] and [[Reformed Christianity]]. Likewise, ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' describes the Trinity as "the central dogma of Christian theology".<ref name="Kraybill2010">{{cite book |last1=Kraybill |first1=Donald B. |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Amish, Brethren, Hutterites, and Mennonites |date=1 November 2010 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-9911-9 |language=en |quote=The classical doctrine of the Trinity—God as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—has been generally accepted by Anabaptist groups but not highly developed.}}</ref><ref name="ODCC">The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press, 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-19-280290-3}}), article ''Trinity, doctrine of the''</ref><ref name="Tavast2012">{{cite book |last1=Tavast |first1=Timo |title=Unity in the Triune God: Trinitarian Theology in the Full-Communion Agreements of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America |date=21 December 2012 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-61097-901-6 |page=152 |language=en |quote=The Moravian side's trinitarian emphasis in ecumenically-oriented ecclesiology can be generally concluded as follows: first, it deals with the ontological foundation of the church's unity and structure. As chapter 4 elucidates, the first aspect, that is, the church's ontological foundation, is stated in ''Following Our Shepherd to Full Communion''. The Moravians emphasize that the Holy Trinity has called the church into being and that the triune God is the source of the church's being and mission. In addition, the idea of the church's and its member's ontological participation in the Trinity is clearly presented by the Moravians: the church is linked "in an intimate union with the Triune God."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Barley |first1=L. M. |last2=Field |first2=C. D. |last3=Kosmin |first3=B. A. |last4=Nielsen |first4=J. S. |title=Religion: Recurrent Christian Sources, Non-Recurrent Christian Data, Judaism, Other Religions |date=28 June 2014 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1-4832-9599-2 |page=25 |language=en}}</ref> However, a precise representative view of Protestant Trinitarian theology regarding "God the Father", etc., is more difficult to provide, given the diverse and less centralized nature of the various Protestant churches.<ref name="ODCC"/>

== Nontrinitarianism ==
{{Main article|Nontrinitarianism}}
Some Christian traditions reject the doctrine of the Trinity, and are called nontrinitarian.<ref name=Metzger3643>{{cite book |last=Metzger |first=Paul Louis |title=Trinitarian soundings in systematic theology |date=2005 |publisher=T & T Clark International |location=London |pages=36, 43 |isbn=0567084108}}</ref> These groups differ from one another in their views, variously depicting Jesus as a divine being second only to God the Father, [[Yahweh]] of the Old Testament in human form, God (but not eternally God), prophet, or simply a holy man.<ref name=Metzger3643 /> Some broad definitions of [[Protestantism]] categorise these nontrinitarian traditions as Protestant, but most definitions do not.<ref name=Melton543>{{cite encyclopedia |editor1-last=Melton |editor1-first=J. Gordon |title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism |date=2008 |publisher=Checkmark Books |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-0816077465 |page=543}}</ref>

Nontrinitarianism goes back to the early centuries of Christian history and groups such as the [[Arianism|Arians]], [[Ebionites]], [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]], and others.<ref name=Mac117>''Theology: The Basics'' by [[Alister E. McGrath]] (21 September 2011) {{ISBN|0470656751}} pages 117–120</ref> These nontrinatarian views were rejected by many bishops such as [[Irenaeus]] and subsequently by the [[Ecumenical council]]s. The [[Nicene Creed]] raised the issue of the relationship between Jesus' divine and human natures.<ref name=Mac117/> After it was rejected by the Council of Nicea, nontrinitarianism was rare among Christians for many centuries, and those rejecting the doctrine of the Trinity faced hostility from other Christians, but the 19th century saw the establishment of a number of groups in North America and elsewhere.<ref name="Melton543"/>

In [[Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs]], only God the Father is the one almighty God, even over his Son Jesus Christ. While the Witnesses acknowledge Christ's pre-existence, perfection, and unique "Sonship" with God the Father, and believe that Christ had an essential role in creation and redemption, and is the Messiah, they believe that only the Father is without beginning.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Insight on the Scriptures|volume=2|year=1988|page=1019}}</ref>

<ref name="churchofjesuschrist.org">{{cite web |last1=Holland |first1=Jeffrey R. |title=The Only True God and Jesus Christ Whom He Hath Sentrist |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/general-conference/2007/10/the-only-true-god-and-jesus-christ-whom-he-hath-sent.p5?lang=eng#p5 |website=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints |access-date=29 November 2021}}</ref>

[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] teaches that the Godhead is a divine unity of three distinct beings: [[Elohim]] (the Father), [[Jehovah]] (the Son, or Jesus), and [[the Holy Ghost]]. In Latter-day Saint theology, the Father and the Son both possess glorified, perfected, physical bodies "as tangible as man's,"<ref>{{cite web |last1=Doctrine and Covenants |title=130:22–23 |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/130?lang=eng |website=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints}}</ref> whereas the Holy Ghost has a body of spirit only. Latter-day Saints recognize the divinity of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, and understand that these beings are "one in every significant and eternal aspect imaginable except believing Them to be three persons combined in one substance..." which Latter-day Saints believe is "...a Trinitarian notion never set forth in the scriptures because it is not true."<ref name="churchofjesuschrist.org"/> Latter-day Saints believe that God is omniscient, omnipotent, and omni-benevolent.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Dahl |author-first=Paul E. |year=1992 |contribution=Godhead |contribution-url=https://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Godhead |editor-last=Ludlow |editor-first=Daniel H. |editor-link=Daniel H. Ludlow |title=[[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]] |location=New York City |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishing]] |pages=552–553 |isbn=0-02-879602-0 |oclc=24502140 |via=[[Harold B. Lee Library]] |access-date=15 October 2021}}</ref>

[[Oneness Pentecostalism|Oneness Pentecostals]] advance a form of [[Modalistic Monarchianism]] that states that there is one God, a singular divine Spirit, who manifests himself in many ways, including as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.<ref>{{cite book |last=Reed |first=David A. |year=2018 |origyear=2008 |title="In Jesus' Name": The History and Beliefs of Oneness Pentecostals |chapter=From Issue to Doctrine: The Revelation of God and the Name, One Lord and One Baptism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rAD1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA175 |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Journal of Pentecostal Theology: Supplement Series |volume=31 |pages=175–205 |isbn=978-90-04-39708-8 |issn=0966-7393}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Christianity|Religion}}
* [[Attributes of God in Christianity]]
* [[Catholic Church#Nature of God|Catholic Church § Nature of God]]
* [[Conceptions of God]]
* [[Diversity in early Christian theology]]
* [[Ethical monotheism]]
* [[Existence of God]]
* [[God in Abrahamic religions]]
** [[God in the Baháʼí Faith]]
** [[God in Judaism]]
** [[God in Islam]]
** [[God in Mormonism]]
** [[Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs#God|Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs § God]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Christine |author-link=Christine Hayes |year=2012 |chapter=Understanding Biblical Monotheism |title=Introduction to the Bible |location=New Haven and London |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |series=The Open Yale Courses Series |pages=15–28 |isbn=9780300181791 |jstor=j.ctt32bxpm.6}}
* Jenkins, David. ''Guide to the Debate about God''. London: Lutterworth Press, 1966.
* {{cite book |last=Jinkins |first=Michael |year=2001 |title=Invitation to Theology: A Guide to Study, Conversation & Practice |location=Westmont, Illinois |publisher=[[InterVarsity Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UMjUsJwt3f4C |isbn=9780830815623}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Kärkkäinen |editor-first=Veli-Matti |editor-link=Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen |title=Holy Spirit and Salvation: The Sources of Christian Theology|year=2010 |location=Louisville, Kentucky |publisher=[[Westminster John Knox Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=buA7YKLWe6YC |isbn=9780664231361}}
* {{cite book |last=Kärkkäinen |first=Veli-Matti |year=2002 |title=Pneumatology: The Holy Spirit in Ecumenical, International, and Contextual Perspective |location=Ada, Michigan |publisher=[[Baker Academic]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XI6iB7Cry6AC |isbn=9780801024481}}
* {{cite book |author-last=Ratzinger |author-first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Ratzinger |year=2004 |origyear=1968 |chapter=Part One: God – Chapter II: The Biblical Belief in God |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LJlkwvExekkC&pg=PA116 |title=[[Introduction to Christianity]] |location=San Francisco |publisher=[[Ignatius Press]] |edition=2nd Revised |pages=116–136 |isbn=9781586170295 |lccn=2004103523 |s2cid=169456327}}
* {{citation |last= Reeves |first= Michael |title= ''Delighting in the Trinity: An Introduction to the Christian Faith'' ISBN 978-0-8308-4707-5 |date= 2022 }}

== External links ==
{{Library resources box}}

* [http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/npnf103/cache/npnf103.txt Augustine ''On the Holy Trinity'']
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15047a.htm The Blessed Trinity] Article in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia''

{{Christianity footer|collapsed}}
{{Christian theology}}
{{Theology|by religion}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Christology]]
[[Category:Conceptions of God]]
[[Category:God in Christianity| ]]
[[Category:Patriology]]
[[Category:Pneumatology]]