Perfume Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! {{Short description|Mixture of fragrant substance}} {{About|the fragrant substance}} '''Perfume''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|p|ɜː|f|j|uː|m}}, {{IPAc-en|US|p|ər|ˈ|f|j|uː|m}}; {{lang-fr|parfum|link=no}}) is a mixture of [[fragrance|fragrant]] [[essential oil]]s or [[aroma compound]]s (fragrances), [[Fixative (perfumery)|fixative]]s and [[solvent]]s, usually in liquid form, used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living-spaces an agreeable [[scent]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/perfume|title= Perfume – Definition and More from Dictionary|work= [[Merriam-Webster]]|access-date= 14 June 2010|archive-date= 6 June 2022|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220606211355/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/perfume|url-status= live}}</ref> Perfumes can be defined as substances that emit and diffuse a pleasant and fragrant odor. They consist of manmade mixtures of aromatic chemicals and essential oils. The 1939 [[List of Nobel laureates|Nobel Laureate]] for Chemistry, [[Leopold Ružička]] stated in 1945 that "right from the earliest days of scientific chemistry up to the present time, perfumes have substantially contributed to the development of [[organic chemistry]] as regards methods, systematic classification, and theory."<ref name="gs15">{{cite journal |last1=Shyndriayeva |first1=Galina |title=Perfume at the Forefront of Macrocyclic Compound Research: From Switzerland to Du Pont |journal=International Workshop on the History of Chemistry |date=2015 |location=Tokyo |url=http://kagakushi.org/iwhc2015/papers/23.ShyndriayevaGalina.pdf |access-date=17 March 2021 |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525094354/https://kagakushi.org/iwhc2015/papers/23.ShyndriayevaGalina.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Ancient texts and archaeological excavations show the use of perfumes in some of the earliest human civilizations. Modern perfumery began in the late 19th century with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds such as [[vanillin]] or [[coumarin]], which allowed for the composition of perfumes with smells previously unattainable solely from natural aromatics. ==History== {{main|History of perfume}} [[File:Lily perfume Louvre E11162.jpg|thumbnail|left|Egyptian scene depicting the preparation of lily perfume, 4th century BC]] The word ''perfume'' is derived from the Latin ''perfumare'', meaning "to smoke through".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/perfume|title=perfume|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary|access-date=2020-10-11|archive-date=29 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929083743/https://www.etymonline.com/word/perfume|url-status=live}}</ref> Perfumery, as the art of making perfumes, began in ancient [[Mesopotamia]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], the [[Indus Valley civilization]] and possibly [[Ancient China]].<ref>{{Cite journal|date=November 20, 2015|title=Scented Oils and Perfumes|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/bk-2015-1211.ch008|journal=American Chemical Society|series=ACS Symposium Series|doi=10.1021/bk-2015-1211.ch008|last1=Balasubramanian|first1=Narayanaganesh|volume=1211|pages=219–244|isbn=9780841231122|access-date=23 May 2021|archive-date=18 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818083846/https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/bk-2015-1211.ch008|url-status=live}}</ref> It was further refined by the [[ancient Rome|Romans]] and the Muslims.{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}} One of the world's first-recorded [[chemist|chemists]] is considered to be a woman named [[Tapputi]], a perfume maker mentioned in a [[cuneiform]] tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia.<ref>{{cite book|author= Strathern, Paul |title= Mendeleyev's Dream – The Quest For the Elements|location= New York | publisher= Berkley Books|year= 2000|isbn= 0-425-18467-6}}</ref> She distilled flowers, oil, and [[Acorus calamus|calamus]] with other [[aroma compound|aromatic]]s, then filtered and put them back in the still several times.<ref>{{cite book|last= Levey|first=Martin|title= Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction Based on Ancient and Medieval Sources|publisher= Brill Archive|year=1973|page= 9|isbn= 90-04-03796-9}}</ref> On the [[Indian subcontinent]], perfume and perfumery existed in the [[Indus civilization]] (3300 BC – 1300 BC).<ref>{{cite book|title= Agriculture Diversification: Problems and Perspectives|author1= A.K. Sharma|author2= Seema Wahad|author3= Raśmī Śrīvāstava|page=140|publisher= I. K. International Pvt Ltd|year= 2010}}</ref> [[File:Arheologicheski-Perfume.jpg|thumb|200px|A Byzantine [[alembic]] used to distill perfumes]] [[File:Perfume vessel in shape of a monkey MET DP228710.jpg|thumb|upright|Ancient Egyptian perfume vessel in shape of a monkey; 1550-1295 BC; faience; height: 6.5 cm, width: 3.3 cm, depth: 3.8 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)]] In 2003,<ref name="NG070329">{{cite web | last = Roach | first = John | title = Oldest Perfumes Found on "Aphrodite's Island" | date = 29 March 2007 | url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/03/070329-oldest-perfumes.html | access-date = 21 June 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131012103328/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/pf/4419999.html | archive-date = 12 October 2013}}</ref> archaeologists uncovered what are believed{{by whom|date=July 2015}} to be the world's oldest surviving perfumes in [[Pyrgos, Limassol|Pyrgos]], [[Cyprus]]. The perfumes dated back more than 4,000 years. They were discovered in an ancient perfumery, a {{convert|3230|sqft|m2|-2|adj=on|order=flip|sp=us}} factory<ref name=NG070329/> housing at least 60 stills, mixing bowls, funnels, and perfume bottles. In ancient times people used [[herb]]s and [[spice]]s, such as [[almond]], [[coriander]], [[Myrtus communis|myrtle]], [[conifer|conifer resin]], and [[bergamot orange|bergamot]], as well as [[flowers]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,261631,00.html?sPage=fnc.science/archaeology|title=Ancient Perfumes Recreated, Put on Display in Rome|work=Fox News|access-date=16 April 2007|archive-date=23 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023191805/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,261631,00.html?sPage=fnc.science%2Farchaeology|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2018, an ancient perfume "Rodo" (Rose) was recreated for the Greek National Archaeological Museum's anniversary show "Countless Aspects of Beauty", allowing visitors to approach antiquity through their olfaction receptors.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/229202/article/ekathimerini/life/ancient-perfume-recreated-for-anniversary-show|title=Ancient perfume recreated for anniversary show|last=Elis|first=Kiss|date=2 June 2018|work=Kathimerini English Edition|access-date=6 June 2018|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126161258/https://www.ekathimerini.com/229202/article/ekathimerini/life/ancient-perfume-recreated-for-anniversary-show|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 9th century the [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Arab chemist]] [[Al-Kindi]] (Alkindus) wrote the ''Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations'', which contained more than a hundred recipes for fragrant [[oils]], [[Salve|salves]], aromatic waters, and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs. The book also described 107 methods and recipes for perfume-making and perfume-making equipment, such as the [[alembic]] (which still bears its Arabic name.<ref>al-Hassani, Woodcok and Saoud (2006) 1001 Inventions; Muslim Heritage in Our World, FSTC, p.22.</ref><ref>{{citation | author= M. Ullmann | contribution=AL-KĪMIYĀ | title= The Encyclopaedia of Islam | edition= 2nd | volume=5 | publisher=Brill | year=1986 | page= 111b| title-link=The Encyclopaedia of Islam }}</ref> [from [[Greek language|Greek]] ἄμβιξ, "cup", "beaker"]<ref>{{citation | author= E. Wiedemann | author2=M. Plessner | contribution=AL-ANBĪḲ | title= The Encyclopaedia of Islam | edition=2nd | volume=1 | publisher=Brill | year=1986 | page=486a| author-link=Eilhard Wiedemann | title-link=The Encyclopaedia of Islam }}</ref><ref>{{citation | editor= Henry George Liddell | editor2=Robert Scott | contribution=ἄμβιξ | title= Greek-English Lexicon | edition=8th | publisher=Harper & Brothers | year=1897 | page=73 | contribution-url=https://archive.org/details/greekenglishlex00lidduoft| title-link=Greek-English Lexicon }}</ref> described by [[Synesius]] in the 4th century<ref>{{citation | author= Marcellin Berthelot | title= Introduction à l'étude de la chimie des anciens et du moyen âge | publisher= Steinheil | year= 1889 | page= 164 | url= http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3815b | author-link= Marcellin Berthelot | access-date= 13 October 2014 | archive-date= 23 November 2020 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201123124116/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3815b | url-status= live }}</ref>). The Persian chemist Ibn Sina (also known as [[Avicenna]]) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of [[distillation]], the procedure most commonly used today. He first experimented with the [[rose]]. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes consisted of mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, which made a strong blend. [[Rose water]] was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both the raw ingredients and the distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly [[chemistry]]. There is a controversy on whether perfumery was completely lost in [[Western Europe]] after the [[Fall of Rome|fall]] of the [[Western Roman Empire]]. That said, the art of perfumery in Western Europe was reinvigorated after the Islamic [[Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula|invasion of Spain]] and [[Islamic Italy|Southern Italy]] in 711 and 827. The Islamic controlled cities of Spain ([[Al-Andalus]]) became major producers of perfumes that were traded throughout the [[Old World]]. Like in the ancient world, [[Andalusians]] used fragrance in devotion to God. Perfumes added a layer of cleanliness that was needed for their devotion. Andalusian women were also offered greater [[Women's rights|freedoms]] than women in other Muslim controlled regions and were allowed to leave their homes and socialize outside. This freedom allowed [[courtship]] to occur outside of the home. As a result, Andalusian women used perfumes for courtship.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Perfumes in Spain |url=http://www.lacasamundo.com/2013/05/historia-del-perfume-en-espana-los.html |website=La Casa Mundo |access-date=24 September 2021 |archive-date=24 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924093246/http://www.lacasamundo.com/2013/05/historia-del-perfume-en-espana-los.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Recipes of perfumes from the [[monk]]s of Santa Maria Delle Vigne or [[Santa Maria Novella]] of [[Florence]], Italy, were recorded from 1221.<ref>{{cite book|title=Citrus bergamia: Bergamot and its Derivatives|author=Giovanni Dugo, Ivana Bonaccorsi|publisher=CRC Press|year=2013|isbn=9781439862292|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0vNBQAAQBAJ|pages=467}}</ref> In the east, the [[Hungarians]] produced around 1370 a perfume made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution – best known as [[Hungary Water]] – at the behest of [[Elisabeth of Poland|Queen Elizabeth of Hungary]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Mystery and Lure of Perfume|last=Thompson|first=C.J.S.|publisher=John Lane the Bodley Head Limited|year=1927|location=London|pages=140}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Voudouri|first1=Dimitra|last2=Tesseromatis|first2=Christine|date=December 2015|title=Perfumery from Myth to Antiquity|url=http://ijmpnet.com/journals/ijmp/Vol_3_No_2_Decembe_2015/4.pdf|journal=International Journal of Medicine and Pharmacy|volume=3|issue=2|pages=52|doi=10.15640/ijmp.v3n2a4|doi-access=free|access-date=11 October 2020|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816172513/http://ijmpnet.com/journals/ijmp/Vol_3_No_2_Decembe_2015/4.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Sullivan|first=Catherine|date=1994-03-01|title=Searching for nineteenth-century Florida water bottles|journal=Historical Archaeology|language=en|volume=28|issue=1|pages=78–98|doi=10.1007/BF03374182|s2cid=162639733|issn=0440-9213}}</ref> The art of perfumery prospered in [[Renaissance]] Italy, and in the 16th century the personal perfumer to [[Catherine de' Medici]] (1519–1589), [[René Bianchi (perfumer)|René]] the [[Florence|Florentine]] (Renato il fiorentino), took Italian refinements to France. His laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulae could be stolen en route. Thanks to Rene, France quickly became one of the European centers of perfume and [[cosmetics]] manufacture. Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, perfumes were used primarily by the wealthy to mask [[body odor]]s resulting from infrequent bathing.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stoddart|first=David Michael|title=The Scented Ape: The Biology and Culture of Human Odour|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1990|pages=142–167}}</ref> In 1693, Italian barber Giovanni Paolo Feminis created a perfume water called Aqua Admirabilis,<ref>Compare: {{cite book | last1 = Pepe | first1 = Tracy | title = So, What's All the Sniff About?: An In-Depth Plea for Sanity and Equal Rights for Your Sense of Smell, Our Most Neglected and Endangered Sense | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dZYVMRG0PMAC | publisher = So Whats all the Sniff about | date = 2000 | page = 46 | isbn = 9780968707609 | access-date = 11 July 2015 | quote = In 1693 an Italian, Giovanni Paolo de Feminis created a fragrance called "Aqua Mirabilis". This fragrance was said to have therapeutic properties to aid with headaches and heart palpitations. It was designed as a non-gender aroma that would enhance one's mood. }} </ref> today best known as [[eau de cologne]]; his nephew [[Johann Maria Farina]] (Giovanni Maria Farina) took over the business in 1732.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cologneblog.com/history-of-mens-cologne/ |title=A Brief History of Men's Cologne – Discover the History of Men's Fragrances-COLOGNE BLOG |work=COLOGNE BLOG |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203004537/http://cologneblog.com/history-of-mens-cologne/ |archive-date=3 February 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=New Remedies: An Illustrated Monthly Trade Journal of Materia Medica, Pharmacy and Therapeutics|author=Charles Rice, Frederick Albert Castle|publisher=W. Wood & Company|year=1879|pages=358}}</ref> By the 18th century the [[Grasse]] region of France, [[Sicily]], and [[Calabria]] (in Italy) were growing aromatic plants to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, Italy and France remain the center of European perfume design and [[trade]]. <gallery widths="170px" heights="170px"> Perfume vase MET 30.8.177 EGDP017567 (cropped).jpg|Ancient Egyptian perfume vase in shape of an [[amphoriskos]]; 664–630 BC; glass: 8 × 4 cm (3.1 × 1.5 in); [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) Perfume bottle in shape of an athlete agora museum athens.jpg|[[Ancient Greek art|Ancient Greek]] perfume bottle in shape of an athlete binding a victory ribbon around his head; circa 540s BC; [[Ancient Agora Museum]] ([[Athens]]) Etruscan perfume vase Louvre Br2949.jpg|[[Etruscan art|Etruscan]] perfume vase, which is inscribed the word "suthina" ("for the tomb"); early 2nd century BC; bronze; height: 16 cm; [[Louvre]] Glass gold-band mosaic alabastron (perfume bottle) MET DP105812.jpg|Late [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] glass gold-band mosaic alabastron (perfume bottle); 1st century BC; glass and [[gold leaf]]; Metropolitan Museum of Art Glass perfume bottle MET DP108896.jpg|[[Roman Empire|Roman]] perfume bottle; 1st century AD; glass; 5.2 x 3.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art EAM - Perfume amphora.jpg|Partially broken perfume amphora; 2nd century AD; glass; from [[Ephesus]]; [[Ephesus Archaeological Museum]] ([[Selçuk]], [[Turkey]]) Perfume vase MET DP285422.jpg|British [[Rococo]] perfume vase; circa 1761; soft-paste porcelain; overall: 43.2 × 29.2 × 17.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Pair of perfume burners MET DP104612.jpg|British [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] pair of perfume burners; probably circa 1770; derbyshire spar, tortoiseshell, and wood, [[Carrara marble]] base, gilded brass mounts, gilded copper liner; 33 × 14.3 × 14.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Louis Comfort Tiffany - Perfume Bottle - 1966.379 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|[[Art Nouveau]] perfume bottle; circa 1900; glass with gilt metal cover; overall: 13.4 cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] ([[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]], USA) </gallery> ==Dilution classes and terminologies== [[File:1811-Rosoli-Flacon.jpg|thumb|upright|Original [[Eau de Cologne]] flacon 1811, from [[Johann Maria Farina]], [[Farina gegenüber]]]] [[File:Vintage Atomizer Perfume Bottle.JPG|thumb|Vintage atomizer perfume bottle]] Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically [[ethanol]] or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types. The intensity and longevity of a fragrance is based on the concentration, intensity, and longevity of the aromatic compounds, or perfume oils, used. As the percentage of aromatic compounds increases, so does the intensity and longevity of the scent. Specific terms are used to describe a fragrance's approximate concentration by the percent of perfume oil in the volume of the final product. The most widespread terms<ref name="NYT71218">{{cite news |author1=Tynan Sinks |title=The Difference Between Perfume, Cologne and Other Fragrances |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/12/smarter-living/differences-perfume-cologne-fragrance.html |access-date=13 July 2018 |work=The New York Times |date=12 July 2018 |quote=You'll see all sorts of names in the fragrance section: perfume, eau de toilette, parfum, eau de cologne. What makes them different — and in many cases, more expensive? |archive-date=12 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712175250/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/12/smarter-living/differences-perfume-cologne-fragrance.html |url-status=live }}</ref> are: * '''Parfum''' or '''extrait''' (P): 15–40% aromatic compounds ([[International Fragrance Association|IFRA]]: typically ~20%). In English, parfum is also known as perfume extract, pure perfume, or simply perfume. * '''Esprit de parfum''' (ESdP): 15–30% aromatic compounds, a seldom used strength concentration between EdP and parfum. * '''Eau de parfum''' (EdP) or '''parfum de toilette''' (PdT): 10–20% aromatic compounds (typically ~15%). It is sometimes called "eau de perfume" or "millésime."{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} Parfum de toilette is a less common term, most popular in the 1980s, that is generally analogous to eau de parfum. * '''[[Eau de toilette]]''' (EdT): 5–15% aromatic compounds (typically ~10%). This is the staple for most masculine perfumes. * '''[[eau de Cologne|Eau de cologne]]''' (EdC): 3–8% aromatic compounds (typically ~5%). This concentration is often simply called cologne. * '''Eau fraîche''': 3% or less aromatic compounds. This general term encompasses products sold as "splashes," "mists," "veils" and other imprecise terms. Such products may be diluted with water rather than oil or alcohol.<ref name="NYT71218"/> ===Imprecise terminology=== [[File:J.B. Filz Vienna 2007.jpg|thumb|upright|J.B. Filz in Vienna. Perfumeries with long traditions, such as J.B. Filz, created their own scents.<ref>{{cite web |title=Scents from Vienna |url=http://www.wien.info/en/lifestyle-scene/trendy/scents-from-vienna |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219183158/http://www.wien.info/en/lifestyle-scene/trendy/scents-from-vienna |archive-date=19 December 2013 |access-date=19 December 2013 |work=wien.info}}</ref>]] The wide range in the percentages of aromatic compounds that may be present in each concentration means that the terminology of extrait, EdP, EdT, and EdC is quite imprecise with regard to oil concentration. Although an EdP will often be more concentrated than an EdT and in turn an EdC, this is not always the case. Different perfumeries or perfume houses assign different amounts of oils to each of their perfumes. Therefore, although the oil concentration of a perfume in EdP dilution will necessarily be higher than the same perfume in EdT from within a company's same range, the actual amount will vary among companies. An EdT from one house may have a higher concentration of aromatic compounds than an EdP from another. Furthermore, some fragrances with the same ''product name'' but having a different ''concentration'' may not only differ in their dilutions, but actually use different perfume oil mixtures altogether. For instance, in order to make the EdT version of a fragrance brighter and fresher than its EdP, the EdT oil may be "tweaked" to contain slightly more top notes or fewer base notes. ''[[Chanel No. 5]]'' is a good example: its parfum, EdP, EdT, and now-discontinued EdC concentrations are in fact different compositions (the parfum dates to 1921, the EdT from the 1950s, and the EdP was not developed until the 1980s). In some cases, words such as ''extrême'', ''intense'', or ''concentrée'' that might indicate a higher aromatic concentration are actually completely different fragrances, related only because of a similar perfume ''accord''. An example of this is Chanel's ''Pour Monsieur'' and ''Pour Monsieur concentrée''. === History of the terms and concentrations === The terms "perfume" and "cologne" lead to much confusion in English. "Perfume" is often used as a generic, overarching term to refer to fragrances marketed to women, regardless of their exact concentration. The term "cologne" is applied to those sold to men. The actual product worn by a woman may be an eau de parfum rather than an extrait, or by a man an eau de toilette rather than an eau de cologne. The reasons why the terms "perfume" and "cologne" are often used in a generic sense is related to the modern development of perfumery in Europe since the 18th century. The term "cologne" was first used in Europe in the 18th century to refer to a family of fresh, citrus-based fragrances distilled using extracts from citrus, floral, and woody ingredients. These "classical colognes" were supposedly first developed in [[Cologne, Germany]], hence the name. This type of cologne, which is still in production, describes unisex compositions "which are basically citrus blends and do not have a perfume parent."<ref name="Glossary C">{{cite web|title=Glossary (C) |url=http://www.fragrance.org/glossary.php?l=C |publisher=The Fragrance Foundation |access-date=7 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100731203552/http://www.fragrance.org/glossary.php?l=C |archive-date=31 July 2010 }}</ref> Examples include Mäurer & Wirtz's ''[[4711]]'' (created in 1799), and Guerlain's ''Eau de Cologne Impériale'' (1830). "Toilet water," or eau de toilette, referred to wide range of scented waters not otherwise known as colognes, and were popular throughout the 19th century. The term "perfume" emerged in the late 19th century. The first fragrance labeled a "parfum" extract with a high concentration of aromatic compounds was Guerlain's ''[[Jicky]]'' in 1889. In the first half of the 20th century, fragrance companies began offering their products in more than one concentration, often pairing an extrait with a lighter eau de toilette suitable for day wear, which made their products available to a wider range of customers. As this process accelerated, perfume houses borrowed the term "cologne" to refer to an even more diluted interpretation of their fragrances than eau de toilette. [[Guerlain]], for example, offered an eau de cologne version of its flagship perfume ''[[Shalimar (perfume)|Shalimar]]'' and many of its other fragrances. In contrast to a classical eau de cologne, this type of modern cologne is a lighter, less concentrated interpretation of a more concentrated product, typically a pure parfum, and is usually the lightest concentration from a line of fragrance products.<ref name="Glossary C" /> The eau de parfum concentration and terminology is the most recent, being originally developed to offer the radiance of an EdT with the longevity of an extrait. Parfum de toilette and EdP began to appear in the 1970s and gained popularity in the 1980s. In the 21st century, EdP is probably the most widespread strength concentration. It is often the first concentration offered when a new fragrance is launched, and usually referred to generically as "perfume."<ref name="NYT71218" /> Historically, women's fragrances tended to have higher levels of aromatic compounds than men's fragrances. Fragrances marketed to men were typically sold as EdT or EdC, rarely as EdP or perfume extracts. This is changing in the modern fragrance world, especially as fragrances are becoming more unisex. Women's fragrances used to be common in all levels of concentration, but in the 21st century are mainly seen in EdP and EdT concentrations. Many modern perfumes are never offered in extrait or eau de cologne formulations, and EdP and EdT account for the vast majority of new launches.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Guide to Perfume Types |url=https://www.perfume.com/article-a-guide-to-perfume-types |access-date=25 April 2022 |archive-date=25 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225091907/https://www.perfume.com/article-a-guide-to-perfume-types |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Solvent types=== Perfume oils are often diluted with a solvent, though this is not always the case, and its necessity is disputed. By far the most common solvent for perfume-oil dilution is alcohol, typically a mixture of ethanol and water or a [[rectified spirit]]. Perfume oil can also be diluted by means of neutral-smelling oils such as fractionated [[coconut oil]], or liquid [[wax]]es such as [[jojoba oil]] and [[Almond|almond oil]]. ===Applying fragrances=== The conventional application of pure perfume (parfum extrait) in Western cultures is behind the ears, at the nape of the neck, under the armpits and at the insides of wrists, elbows and knees, so that the pulse point will warm the perfume and release fragrance continuously. According to perfumer [[Sophia Grojsman]] behind the knees is the ideal point to apply perfume in order that the scent may rise.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://forward.com/news/144873/perfume-nose-conjures-up-perfect-scents/ | title=Perfume 'Nose' Conjures Up Perfect Scents | website=Forward.com | access-date=8 August 2015 | author=Berger, Paul | date=26 October 2011 | archive-date=11 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150811182008/http://forward.com/news/144873/perfume-nose-conjures-up-perfect-scents/ | url-status=live }}</ref> The modern perfume industry encourages the practice of layering fragrance so that it is released in different intensities depending upon the time of the day. Lightly scented products such as bath oil, shower gel, and body lotion are recommended for the morning; eau de toilette is suggested for the afternoon; and perfume applied to the pulse points for evening.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Agata A. Listowska, MA |author2=Mark A. Nicholson, ASO |name-list-style=amp |title=Complementary Medicine, Beauty and Modelling|year=2011|publisher=Xlibris Corporation|isbn=9781456888954|pages=153–4}}{{self-published source|date=December 2017}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}} Cologne fragrance is released rapidly, lasting around 2 hours. Eau de toilette lasts from 2 to 4 hours, while perfume may last up to six hours.<ref name="Turkington, Carol and Jeffrey S. Dover 2009 148">{{cite book|author1=Turkington, Carol |author2=Jeffrey S. Dover |name-list-style=amp |title=The Encyclopedia of Skin and Skin Disorders|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9780816075096|page=148}}</ref> A variety of factors can influence how fragrance interacts with the wearer's own physiology and affect the perception of the fragrance. Diet is one factor, as eating spicy and fatty foods can increase the intensity of a fragrance.<ref name="Fragrance Info / FAQs">{{cite web|title=Fragrance Info / FAQs |url=http://www.fragrance.org/faqs.php |publisher=The Fragrance Foundation |access-date=7 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108031824/http://www.fragrance.org/faqs.php |archive-date=8 November 2012 }}</ref> The use of medications can also impact the character of a fragrance.<ref name="Fragrance Info / FAQs" /> The relative dryness of the wearer's skin is important, since dry skin will not hold fragrance as long as skin with more oil.<ref name="Turkington, Carol and Jeffrey S. Dover 2009 148" /> ==Describing a perfume== [[File:Fougère Royale by Paul Parquet - Bottle.jpg|thumb|upright|An original bottle of ''Fougère Royale'' by [[Houbigant Parfum|Houbigant]]. Created by [[Paul Parquet]] in 1884, it is one of the most important modern perfumes and inspired the eponymous {{lang|fr|[[Fougère]]}} class of fragrances.]] [[File:Fragrance pyramid.svg|thumb|upright|Fragrance pyramid]] The precise formulae of commercial perfumes are kept [[Trade secret|secret]]. Even if they were widely published, they would be dominated by such complex ingredients and odorants that they would be of little use in providing a guide to the general consumer in description of the ''experience'' of a scent. Nonetheless, connoisseurs of perfume can become extremely skillful at identifying components and origins of scents in the same manner as wine experts.<ref name=Burr>{{cite book | author=Burr, Chandler | title=The Emperor of Scent: A Story of Perfume, Obsession, and the Last Mystery of the Senses | year=2003 | location=New York | publisher=Random House | isbn=0-375-50797-3 | url=https://archive.org/details/emperorofscentst00burr }}</ref> The most practical way to start describing a perfume is according to the elements of the ''fragrance notes'' of the scent or the "family" it belongs to, all of which affect the overall impression of a perfume from first application to the last lingering hint of scent.<ref name=Fortineau>Perfume connoisseurs speak of a fragrance's "sillage", or the discernible trail it leaves in the air when applied. Fortineau, Anne-Dominique (2004). "Chemistry Perfumes Your Daily Life". ''Journal of Chemical Education''.81(1)</ref><ref name=Edwards1>Edwards, Michael (2006). "Fragrances of the World 2006". ''Crescent House Publishing''. {{ISBN|0-9756097-1-8}}</ref> The trail of scent left behind by a person wearing perfume is called its ''sillage'', after the French word for "[[Wake (physics)|wake]]", as in the trail left by a boat in water. ===Fragrance notes=== {{main| Note (perfumery)}} Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of ''notes'', making the harmonious scent ''accord''. The notes unfold over time, with the immediate impression of the top note leading to the deeper middle notes, and the base notes gradually appearing as the final stage. These notes are created carefully with knowledge of the evaporation process of the perfume. *'''Top notes''': Also called the '''''head notes'''''. The scents that are perceived immediately on application of a perfume. Top notes consist of small, light molecules that evaporate quickly. They form a person's initial impression of a perfume and thus are very important in the selling of a perfume. Examples of top notes include mint, lavender and coriander. *'''Middle notes''': Also referred to as '''''heart notes'''''. The scent of a perfume that emerges just prior to the dissipation of the top note. The middle note compounds form the "''heart''" or main body of a perfume and act to mask the often unpleasant initial impression of base notes, which become more pleasant with time. Examples of middle notes include seawater, sandalwood and jasmine. *'''Base notes''': The scent of a perfume that appears close to the departure of the middle notes. The base and middle notes together are the main theme of a perfume. Base notes bring depth and solidity to a perfume. Compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and "deep" and are usually not perceived until 30 minutes after application. Examples of base notes include tobacco, amber and musk. The scents in the top and middle notes are influenced by the base notes; conversely, the scents of the base notes will be altered by the types of fragrance materials used as middle notes. Manufacturers who publish perfume notes typically do so with the fragrance components presented as a ''fragrance pyramid'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.lebermuth.com/fragrance-101-understanding-the-fragrance-pyramid|title=Fragrance 101: Understanding The Fragrance Pyramid|website=Blog.lebermuth.com|access-date=28 September 2018|archive-date=29 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929000259/https://blog.lebermuth.com/fragrance-101-understanding-the-fragrance-pyramid|url-status=live}}</ref> using imaginative and abstract terms for the components listed. ===Olfactive families=== The grouping of perfumes can never be completely objective or definitive. Many fragrances contain aspects of different families. Even a perfume designated as "single flower" will have subtle undertones of other aromatics. There are hardly any true unitary-scent perfumes consisting of a single aromatic material. The family classification is a starting point to describe a perfume, but does not fully characterize it. ====Traditional categories==== [[File:Opium by YSL.jpg|thumb|upright|Opium by YSL, of amber or oriental fragrance class]] [[File:Joy Jean Patou.jpg|thumb|upright|A floral bouquet, Joy from [[Jean Patou]]]] The traditional categories which emerged around 1900: * '''Citrus''': The oldest fragrance family that gave birth to lightweight eau de colognes. Development of newer fragrance compounds has allowed for the creation of more tenacious citrus fragrances. Examples: ''4711'', Guerlain's ''Eau de Cologne Impériale'', Penhaligon's ''Quercus''. *'''Single Floral''': Fragrances dominated by the scent of a particular flower, i.e., rose, carnation, iris. In French this type of fragrance is called a ''soliflore''. Example: [[Serge Lutens]] ''Sa Majeste La Rose''. *'''Floral Bouquet''': Compound of several flower scents. Examples: [[Houbigant (perfume)|Houbigant]] ''Quelques Fleurs'', [[Jean Patou]] ''[[Joy (perfume)|Joy]]''. *'''Amber or "Oriental"''': Large class featuring sweet, slightly animalic scents of [[ambergris]] or [[labdanum]], often combined with [[vanilla]], [[tonka bean]], flowers and woods. Can be enhanced by camphorous oils and [[incense]] resins, evoking [[Victorian era]] "[[Orientalism|Oriental]]" imagery. Traditional examples: [[Guerlain]] ''[[Shalimar (perfume)|Shalimar]]'', [[Yves Saint Laurent (brand)|Yves Saint Laurent]] ''[[Opium (perfume)|Opium]]'', Chanel ''Coco Mademoiselle''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chanel.com/en_US/fragrance-beauty/Fragrance-Coco-Mademoiselle-COCO-MADEMOISELLE-PARFUM-88207|title=Coco Mademoiselle from Chanel|website=Chanel.com|access-date=13 July 2017|archive-date=2 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102181938/http://www.chanel.com/en_US/fragrance-beauty/Fragrance-Coco-Mademoiselle-COCO-MADEMOISELLE-PARFUM-88207|url-status=live}}</ref> *'''Woody''': Fragrances dominated by woody notes, typically [[agarwood]], [[sandalwood]], [[cedar wood|cedarwood]], and [[vetiver]]. Patchouli, with its [[camphor]]aceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes. Traditional examples: Myrurgia ''Maderas De Oriente'', [[Chanel]] ''Bois des Îles.'' Modern: [[Balenciaga]] ''Rumba''. *'''Leather''': A family of fragrances featuring [[honey]], [[tobacco]], wood and wood [[tar]]s in the middle or base notes and a scent that alludes to leather. Traditional examples: [[Robert Piguet]] ''Bandit'', [[Pierre Balmain|Balmain]] ''Jolie Madame''. *'''[[Chypre]]''' ({{IPA-fr|ʃipʁ|IPA}}): Meaning ''[[Cyprus]]'' in French, this category is named after the [[François Coty]]'s ''[[Chypre]]'' (1917), which was the first modern fragrance built on an accord of [[bergamot orange|bergamot]], [[oakmoss]], and [[labdanum]]. Example: [[Guerlain]] ''[[Mitsouko (perfume)|Mitsouko]]'', Rochas ''Femme''. *'''{{lang|fr|[[Fougère]]}}''' ({{IPA-fr|fu.ʒɛʁ|IPA}}): Meaning ''[[fern]]'' in French, built on a base of [[lavender]], [[coumarin]] and [[oakmoss]], with a sharp herbaceous and woody scent. Named for [[Houbigant (perfume)|Houbigant]]'s landmark fragrance ''Fougère Royale'', many men's fragrances belong to this family. Modern examples: [[Fabergé]] ''Brut'', [[Guy Laroche]] ''Drakkar Noir,'' [[Penhaligon's]] ''Douro''. ====Modern==== Since 1945, new categories have emerged to describe modern scents, due to great advances in the technology of compound design and synthesis, as well as the natural development of styles and tastes: *'''Bright Floral''': Combining single floral and floral bouquet traditional categories. Example: [[Estée Lauder Companies|Estée Lauder]] ''Beautiful''. *'''Green''': Lighter, more modern interpretation of the Chypre type, with pronounced cut grass, crushed green leaf and cucumber-like scents. Examples: Estée Lauder ''Aliage'', [[Sisley, Paris|Sisley]] ''Eau de Campagne'', Calvin Klein ''Eternity''. *'''Aquatic''', '''Oceanic''', '''Ozonic''': The newest category, first appearing in 1988 [[Davidoff]] ''[[Cool Water (perfume)|Cool Water]]'' (1988), Christian Dior ''Dune'' (1991). A clean smell reminiscent of the ocean, leading to many [[androgynous]] perfumes. Generally contains [[calone]], a synthetic discovered in 1966, or more recent synthetics. Also used to accent floral, oriental, and woody fragrances. *'''Fruity''': Featuring fruits other than citrus, such as peach, cassis (black currant), mango, passion fruit, and others. Example: Ginestet ''Botrytis''. *'''Gourmand''' ({{IPA-fr|ɡuʁmɑ̃|lang}}): Scents with "edible" or "dessert-like" qualities, often containing vanilla, [[tonka bean]], and [[coumarin]], as well as synthetic components designed to resemble food flavors. A sweet Example: [[Thierry Mugler]]'s ''Angel'' (sweet)''.'' ====Fragrance wheel==== {{main|Fragrance wheel}} [[File:Wheel2.gif|thumb|Fragrance Wheel perfume [[classification chart]], ver. 1983]] This newer classification method is widely used in retail and the fragrance industry, created in 1983 by the perfume consultant [[Michael Edwards (fragrance expert)|Michael Edwards]]. The new scheme simplifies classification and naming, as well as showing the relationships among the classes.<ref name="OGrantInterview">{{cite web |author= Osborne, Grant |date= 1 May 2001 |title= Interview with Michael Edwards |url= http://www.basenotes.net/interviews/int-medwards.html |access-date= 17 December 2006 |website=Basenotes.net |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070206133603/http://www.basenotes.net/interviews/int-medwards.html |archive-date= 6 February 2007 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> The five main families are ''Floral'', ''Oriental'', ''Woody'', ''Aromatic Fougère'', and ''Fresh'', the first four from the classic terminology and the last from the modern oceanic category. Each of these are divided into subgroups and arranged around a wheel. In this scheme, ''Chanel No.5'', traditionally classified as an aldehydic floral, is placed under the Soft Floral sub-group, while amber scents are within the Oriental group. [[Chypre]] perfumes are more ambiguous, having affinities with both the Oriental and Woody families. For instance, Guerlain ''Mitsouko'' is under Mossy Woods, but Hermès ''Rouge'', a more floral chypre, is under Floral Oriental. ==Aromatics sources== ===Plant sources=== [[File:Citrus x limon Blüten und Schädlinge.JPG|thumb|upright|Citrus tree blossom]] [[File:Myrrh.JPG|thumb|Resins in perfumery include [[myrrh]]]] [[File:Frankincense 2005-12-31.jpg|thumb|Frankincense]] Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds. These aromatics are usually [[secondary metabolites]] produced by plants as protection against [[herbivore]]s, infections, as well as to attract [[pollinator]]s. Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery. The sources of these compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant. A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the aerial portions and seeds of [[coriander]] have remarkably different odors from each other. [[Orange (fruit)|Orange]] leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of [[petitgrain]], [[neroli]], and [[orange oil]]s. * '''[[Bark (botany)|Bark]]''': Commonly used barks include [[cinnamon]] and [[cascarilla]]. The fragrant oil in [[sassafras]] root bark is also used either directly or purified for its main constituent, [[safrole]], which is used in the synthesis of other fragrant compounds.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dugan|first=Holly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eQMwptJKG5IC&q=perfume+bark&pg=PP1|title=The Ephemeral History of Perfume: Scent and Sense in Early Modern England|date=2011-09-14|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-1-4214-0234-5|language=en}}</ref> * '''[[Flower]]s''' and '''[[blossom]]s''': Undoubtedly the largest and most common source of perfume aromatics. Includes the flowers of several species of [[rose]] and [[jasmine]], as well as [[osmanthus]], [[plumeria]], [[Acacia farnesiana|mimosa]], [[tuberose]], [[Narcissus (plant)|narcissus]], [[Pelargonium graveolens|scented geranium]], [[Vachellia farnesiana|cassie]], [[ambrette]] as well as the blossoms of [[citrus]] and [[ylang-ylang]] trees. Although not traditionally thought of as a flower, the unopened flower buds of the [[clove]] are also commonly used. Most orchid flowers are not commercially used to produce essential oils or absolutes, except in the case of [[vanilla]], an orchid, which must be pollinated first and made into seed pods before use in perfumery. * '''[[Fruit]]s''': Fresh fruits such as [[apple]]s, [[strawberry|strawberries]], [[cherry|cherries]] rarely yield the expected odors when extracted; if such fragrance notes are found in a perfume, they are more likely to be of synthetic origin. Notable exceptions include blackcurrant leaf, [[litsea|litsea cubeba]], vanilla, and [[juniper|juniper berry]]. The most commonly used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind; they include citrus such as [[orange (fruit)|oranges]], [[lemon]]s, and [[lime (fruit)|limes]]. Although [[grapefruit]] rind is still used for aromatics, more and more commercially used grapefruit aromatics are artificially synthesized since the natural aromatic contains [[sulfur]] and its degradation product is quite unpleasant in smell. * '''[[Leaves]]''' and '''[[twigs]]''': Commonly used for perfumery are [[lavender]] leaf, [[patchouli]], [[Common sage|sage]], [[violet (plant)|violets]], [[rosemary]], and citrus leaves. Sometimes leaves are valued for the "green" smell they bring to perfumes, examples of this include [[hay]] and [[tomato]] leaf. * '''[[Resin]]s''': Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used in [[incense]] and perfumery. Highly fragrant and antiseptic resins and resin-containing perfumes have been used by many cultures as medicines for a large variety of ailments. Commonly used resins in perfumery include [[labdanum]], [[frankincense]]/[[olibanum]], [[myrrh]], [[balsam of Peru]], [[benzoin (resin)|benzoin]]. [[Pine]] and [[fir]] resins are a particularly valued source of [[terpene]]s used in the [[organic synthesis]] of many other synthetic or naturally occurring aromatic compounds. Some of what is called [[amber]] and [[copal]] in perfumery today is the resinous secretion of fossil [[conifer]]s. *'''[[Root]]s, [[rhizome]]s and [[bulb]]s''': Commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery include [[iris (plant)|iris]] [[rhizome]]s, [[vetiver]] roots, various rhizomes of the [[ginger]] family. * '''[[Seed]]s''': Commonly used seeds include [[tonka bean]], [[Daucus carota|carrot seed]], [[coriander]], [[caraway]], [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]], [[nutmeg]], [[mace (spice)|mace]], [[cardamom]], and [[anise]]. * '''[[Wood]]s''': Highly important in providing the base notes to a perfume, wood oils and distillates are indispensable in perfumery. Commonly used woods include [[sandalwood]], [[rosewood]], [[agarwood]], [[birch]], [[Cedrus|cedar]], [[juniper]], and [[pine]]. These are used in the form of macerations or dry-distilled (rectified) forms. *'''Rom [[terpenes]]'''. Orchid scents ===Animal sources=== [[File:Primary Form of Musk.jpg|thumb|A [[musk]] pod. Extensive hunting of male [[musk deer]] for their pods in recent history has resulted in the detriment of the species.]] [[File:Ambergris.jpg|thumb|[[Ambergris]]]] *'''[[Ambergris]]''': Lumps of [[oxidize]]d fatty compounds, whose precursors were secreted and expelled by the [[sperm whale]]. Ambergris should not be confused with [[amber|yellow amber]], which is used in jewelry. Because the harvesting of ambergris involves no harm to its animal source, it remains one of the few animalic fragrancing agents around which little controversy now exists. *'''[[Castoreum]]''': Obtained from the odorous sacs of the North American beaver. *'''[[Civet (perfumery)|Civet]]''': Also called civet musk, this is obtained from the odorous sacs of the civets, animals in the family ''Viverridae'', related to the [[mongoose]]. [[World Animal Protection]] investigated African civets caught for this purpose.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.profumo.it/internet-documents/zibetto/suffering.htm|title=Civet suffering|website=Profumo.it|date=5 August 2014|access-date=19 February 2018|archive-date=15 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015051904/http://profumo.it/internet-documents/zibetto/suffering.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> *'''[[Hyraceum]]''': Commonly known as "Africa stone", is the petrified excrement of the [[rock hyrax]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Olsen |first=Andreas |author2=Linda C. Prinsloo |author3=Louis Scott |author4=Anna K. Jägera |date=November–December 2008 |title=Hyraceum, the fossilized metabolic product of rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis), shows GABA-benzodiazepine receptor affinity |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=103 |url=http://www.up.ac.za/dspace/bitstream/2263/5788/1/Olsen_Hyraceum(2007).pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606173008/http://www.up.ac.za/dspace/bitstream/2263/5788/1/Olsen_Hyraceum%282007%29.pdf |archive-date=6 June 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> *'''[[Honeycomb]]''': From the honeycomb of the [[honeybee]]. Both beeswax and honey can be solvent extracted to produce an absolute. Beeswax is extracted with ethanol and the ethanol evaporated to produce beeswax absolute. *'''[[Musk]]''': Originally derived from a gland (sac or pod) located between the genitals and the umbilicus of the Himalayan male [[musk deer]] Moschus moschiferus, it has now mainly been replaced by the use of [[synthetic musk]]s sometimes known as "white musk". ===Other natural sources=== * '''[[Lichen]]s''': Commonly used lichens include [[oakmoss]] and [[treemoss]] thalli. * '''[[Brown algae|"Seaweed"]]''': Distillates are sometimes used as [[essential oil]] in perfumes. An example of a commonly used seaweed is ''[[Fucus vesiculosus]]'', which is commonly referred to as bladder wrack. Natural seaweed fragrances are rarely used due to their higher cost and lower potency than synthetics. ===Synthetic sources=== {{main| Aroma compound}} Many modern perfumes contain [[chemical synthesis|synthesized]] odorants. Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in nature. For instance, [[Calone]], a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine scent that is widely used in contemporary perfumes. Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds that are not easily obtained from natural sources. For example, [[linalool]] and [[coumarin]] are both naturally occurring compounds that can be inexpensively synthesized from [[terpenes]]. Orchid scents (typically ''[[salicylic acid|salicylates]]'') are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds found in various orchids. One of the most commonly used classes of synthetic aromatics by far are the [[synthetic musk|white musk]]s. These materials are found in all forms of commercial perfumes as a neutral background to the middle notes. These musks are added in large quantities to laundry detergents in order to give washed clothes a lasting "clean" scent. The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few [[:Category:Fragrance companies|companies]]. They include: * [[Givaudan]] * [[International Flavors and Fragrances]] (IFF) * [[Firmenich]] * [[Takasago International Corporation|Takasago]] * [[Symrise]] Each of these companies patents several processes for the production of aromatic synthetics annually. ===Characteristics=== Natural and synthetics are used for their different odor characteristics in perfumery {| class="wikitable" |- !| ! style="background:#ff5656;"|Naturals ! style="background:#5656ff;"|Synthetics |- !|Variance |Natural scents will vary from each supplier based on when and where they are harvested, how they are processed, and the extraction method itself. This means that a certain flower grown in Morocco and in France will smell different, even if the same method is used to grow, harvest, and extract the scent. As such, each perfumer will prefer flowers grown in one country over another, or one extraction method to the next. However, due to a natural scent's mixed composition, it is easy for unscrupulous suppliers to adulterate the actual raw materials by changing its ''source'' (adding Indian jasmine into Grasse jasmine) or the ''contents'' (adding linalool to rosewood) to increase their [[profit margin]]. |Much more consistent than natural aromatics. However, differences in organic synthesis may result in minute differences in concentration of impurities. If these impurities have low smell (detection) thresholds, the differences in the scent of the synthetic aromatic will be significant. |- !|Components |Contains many different organic compounds, each adding a different note to the overall scent. Certain naturally derived substances have a long history of use, but this cannot always be used as an indicator of whether they are safe or not. Possible allergenic or carcinogenic compounds. |Depending on purity, consists primarily of one chemical compound. Sometimes [[Chirality (chemistry)|chiral]] mixtures of isomers, such as in the case of [[Iso E Super]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Iso E Super |publisher=International Flavors & Fragrances |year=2007 |url=http://www.iff.com/Ingredients.nsf/0/E69A1213546C4F8B80256993003995C6 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080223080634/http://www.iff.com/Ingredients.nsf/0/E69A1213546C4F8B80256993003995C6 |archive-date=23 February 2008}}</ref> Due to the almost pure composition of one chemical compound, the same molecules found diluted in nature will have a different scent and effect on the body, if used undiluted. |- !|Scent uniqueness |Reminiscent of its originating material, although extraction may capture a different "layer" of the scent, depending on how the extraction method denatures the odoriferous compounds. |Similar to natural scents yet different at the same time. Some synthetics attempt to mimic natural notes, while others explore the entire spectrum of scent. Novel scent compounds not found in nature will often be unique in their scent. |- !|Scent complexity |Deep and complex fragrance notes. Soft, with subtle scent nuances. Highly valued for ideal composition. |Pure and pronounced fragrance notes. Often monotonous in nature, yet reminiscent of other natural scents. |- !|Price |Dependent on extraction method. More expensive, but not always, as prices are determined by the labor and difficulty of properly extracting each unit of the natural materials, as well as its quality. Typically the relationship between, longevity of a perfume, cost and the concentration of essential oils follows the graph below: [[File:Cologne Strength vs. Cost vs. Cologne Concentration.jpg|thumb|This chart shows the typical relationship between price of perfume, its longevity and the concentration of essential oils.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.topcolognesformen.com/cgi-sys/suspendedpage.cgi|title=Account Suspended|website=Topcolognesformen.com|access-date=4 September 2019|archive-date=4 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904125531/http://www.topcolognesformen.com/cgi-sys/suspendedpage.cgi|url-status=live}}</ref> |Dependent on synthesis method. Generally cheaper, but not necessarily. Synthetic aromatics are not necessarily cheaper than naturals, with some synthetics being more costly than most natural ingredients due to various factors such as the long synthesis routes, low availability of precursor chemicals, and low overall yield. However, due to their low odor threshold, they should be diluted when making a perfume. |} ==Obtaining natural odorants== {{main|Fragrance extraction}} [[File:Itar vendor in Hyderabad.JPG|thumb|Itar (herbal perfume) vendor on the street of [[Hyderabad]], India, who can compose an original perfume for the customer]] Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various perfume compositions must first be obtained. Synthetic odorants are produced through [[organic synthesis]] and purified. Odorants from natural sources require the use of various methods to extract the aromatics from the raw materials. The results of the extraction are either [[essential oil]]s, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of [[wax]]es in the extracted product.<ref name=Camps>Camps, Arcadi Boix (2000). "Perfumery Techniques in Evolution". ''Allured Pub Corp''. {{ISBN|0-931710-72-3}}</ref> All these techniques will, to a certain extent, distort the odor of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. This is due to the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the extraction process which will denature the aromatic compounds, which either change their odor character or renders them odorless. * '''[[Solvent extraction|Maceration/Solvent extraction]]''': The most used and economically important technique for extracting aromatics in the modern perfume industry. Raw materials are submerged in a solvent that can dissolve the desired aromatic compounds. ''Maceration'' lasts anywhere from hours to months. Fragrant compounds for woody and fibrous plant materials are often obtained in this manner as are all aromatics from animal sources. The technique can also be used to extract odorants that are too volatile for ''distillation'' or easily [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denatured]] by heat. Commonly used solvents for ''maceration/solvent extraction'' include [[ethane]], [[hexane]], and [[dimethyl ether]]. The product of this process is called a "[[Concrete (perfumery)|concrete]]." ** ''[[Supercritical fluid extraction]]'': A relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds from a raw material, which often employs [[Supercritical carbon dioxide|Supercritical CO<sub>2</sub>]]. Due to the low heat of process and the relatively nonreactive solvent used in the extraction, the fragrant compounds derived often closely resemble the original odor of the raw material. **''[[Ethanol extraction]]'': A type of solvent extraction used to extract fragrant compounds directly from dry raw materials, as well as the impure oily compounds materials resulting from solvent extraction or enfleurage. Ethanol extraction from fresh plant materials contain large quantities of water, which will also be extracted into the ethanol. * '''[[Distillation]]''': A common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from [[plant]]s, such as [[orange blossom]]s and [[rose]]s. The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds are re-collected through [[condensation]] of the distilled vapor. [[File:Fragonard small perfume distillery.JPG|thumb|upright|An old perfume still on display at [[Musée du Parfum|Fragonard]]]] ** ''Steam distillation'': Steam from boiling water is passed through the raw material, which drives out their volatile fragrant compounds. The condensate from distillation are settled in a [[Florentine flask]]. This allows for the easy separation of the fragrant oils from the water. The water collected from the condensate, which retains some of the fragrant compounds and oils from the raw material is called [[Herbal distillate|hydrosol]] and sometimes sold. This is most commonly used for fresh plant materials such as [[flower]]s, [[leaf|leaves]], and [[Plant stem|stems]]. ** ''Dry/destructive distillation'': The raw materials are directly heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo anhydrous [[pyrolysis]], which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes. This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil [[amber]] and fragrant [[wood]]s where an intentional "burned" or "toasted" odor is desired. ** ''Fractionation'': Through the use of a [[fractionation column]], different fractions distilled from a material can be selectively excluded to modify the scent of the final product. Although the product is more expensive, this is sometimes performed to remove unpleasant or undesirable scents of a material and affords the perfumer more control over their composition process. * '''Expression''': Raw material is squeezed or compressed and the [[essential oil]]s are collected. Of all raw materials, only the fragrant oils from the peels of fruits in the citrus family are extracted in this manner since the oil is present in large enough quantities as to make this extraction method economically feasible. * '''[[Enfleurage]]''': Absorption of aroma materials into solid fat or wax and then extraction of odorous oils with [[ethanol|ethyl alcohol]]. Extraction by [[enfleurage]] was commonly used when [[distillation]] was not possible because some fragrant compounds [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denature]] through high heat. This technique is not commonly used in the modern industry due to prohibitive costs and the existence of more efficient and effective extraction methods.<ref name=Fortineau/> ==Fragrant extracts== [[File:38034290 aromater3.jpg|thumb|upright|Indian Patchouli - Tincture]] Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the generic term "[[essential oil]]s", a more specific language is used in the fragrance industry to describe the source, purity, and technique used to obtain a particular fragrant extract. Of these extracts, only ''absolutes'', ''essential oils'', and ''tinctures'' are directly used to formulate perfumes. *[[Absolute (perfumery)|'''Absolute''']]: Fragrant materials that are purified from a ''pommade'' or ''concrete'' by soaking them in [[ethanol]]. By using a slightly [[hydrophilic]] compound such as ethanol, most of the fragrant compounds from the waxy source materials can be extracted without dissolving any of the fragrantless waxy molecules. Absolutes are usually found in the form of an oily liquid. *[[Concrete (perfumery)|'''Concrete''']]: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from raw materials through ''solvent extraction'' using volatile [[hydrocarbon]]s. Concretes usually contain a large amount of wax due to the ease in which the solvents dissolve various [[hydrophobic]] compounds. As such concretes are usually further purified through distillation or ethanol based solvent extraction. Concretes are typically either waxy or resinous solids or thick oily liquids. *'''[[Essential oil]]''': Fragrant materials that have been extracted from a source material directly through ''distillation'' or ''expression'' and obtained in the form of an oily liquid. Oils extracted through expression are sometimes called ''expression oils''. *'''Pomade''': A fragrant mass of solid fat created from the ''[[enfleurage]]'' process, in which odorous compounds in raw materials are adsorbed into animal fats. Pommades are found in the form of an oily and sticky solid. *'''[[Tincture]]''': Fragrant materials produced by directly soaking and infusing raw materials in [[ethanol]]. Tinctures are typically thin liquids.<ref name=Fortineau/> Products from different extraction methods are known under different names even though their starting materials are the same. For instance, orange blossoms from ''[[Citrus aurantium]]'' that have undergone solvent extraction produces "orange blossom absolute" but that which have been steam distilled is known as "neroli oil". ==Composing perfumes== [[File:Lesbos - Perfume formula by Will Inrig.jpg|thumb|upright|Perfume formula]] Perfume compositions are an important part of many industries ranging from the luxury goods sectors, food services industries, to manufacturers of various household chemicals. The purpose of using perfume or fragrance compositions in these industries is to affect customers through their [[olfaction|sense of smell]] and entice them into purchasing the perfume or perfumed product. As such there is significant interest in producing a perfume formulation that people will find aesthetically pleasing. ===The perfumer=== {{main|Perfumer}} [[File:Ernst, Rodolphe - The Perfume Maker.jpg|thumb|left|''The Perfume Maker'', by [[Rodolphe Ernst]]]] The job of composing perfumes that will be sold is left up to an expert on perfume composition or known in the fragrance industry as the ''perfumer''. They are also sometimes referred to affectionately as a "''Nez''" (French for ''nose'') due to their fine sense of smell and skill in smell composition. The composition of a perfume typically begins with a ''brief'' by the perfumer's employer or an outside customer. The customers to the perfumer or their employers, are typically fashion houses or large [[corporation]]s of various industries.<ref>Islam, G., Endrissat, N., & Noppeney, C. (2016). Beyond "the Eye" of the Beholder: Scent innovation through analogical reconfiguration. Organization Studies, 0170840615622064. http://doi.org/10.1177/0170840615622064.</ref> The perfumer will then go through the process of blending multiple perfume mixtures and sell the formulation to the customer, often with modifications of the composition of the perfume. The perfume composition will then be either used to enhance another product as a ''functional fragrance'' ([[shampoo]]s, [[make-up]], [[detergent]]s, car interiors, etc.), or marketed and sold directly to the public as a ''fine fragrance''.<ref name=Burr /> ===Technique=== [[File:Blotter strips.jpg|right|thumb|Paper blotters (fr:''mouillettes'') are commonly used by perfumers to sample and smell perfumes and odorants.]] Although there is no single "correct" technique for the formulation of a perfume, there are general guidelines as to how a perfume can be constructed from a concept. Although many ingredients do not contribute to the smell of a perfume, many perfumes include colorants and [[antioxidant]]s to improve the marketability and shelf life of the perfume, respectively. ====Basic framework==== Perfume oils usually contain tens to hundreds of ingredients and these are typically organized in a perfume for the specific role they will play. These ingredients can be roughly grouped into four groups: *''Primary scents'' (Heart): Can consist of one or a few main ingredients for a certain concept, such as "rose". Alternatively, multiple ingredients can be used together to create an "abstract" primary scent that does not bear a resemblance to a natural ingredient. For instance, jasmine and rose scents are commonly blends for abstract floral fragrances. [[Cola]] flavourant is a good example of an abstract primary scent. *''Modifiers'': These ingredients alter the primary scent to give the perfume a certain desired character: for instance, fruit [[ester]]s may be included in a floral primary to create a fruity floral; [[calone]] and citrus scents can be added to create a "fresher" floral. The cherry scent in cherry cola can be considered a modifier. *''Blenders'': A large group of ingredients that smooth out the transitions of a perfume between different "layers" or bases. These themselves can be used as a major component of the primary scent. Common blending ingredients include [[linalool]] and hydroxycitronellal. *''Fixatives'': Used to support the primary scent by bolstering it. Many resins, wood scents, and amber bases are used as fixatives. The top, middle, and base notes of a fragrance may have separate primary scents and supporting ingredients. The perfume's [[fragrance oil]]s are then blended with [[Ethanol|ethyl alcohol]] and water, aged in tanks for several weeks and filtered through processing equipment to, respectively, allow the perfume ingredients in the mixture to stabilize and to remove any sediment and particles before the solution can be filled into the perfume bottles.<ref name=cbyear>{{Cite book| first=Chandler| last=Burr| title=The Perfect Scent: A Year Inside the Perfume Industry in Paris & New York| publisher=Henry Holt and Co.| year=2008| isbn=978-0-8050-8037-7| url=https://archive.org/details/perfectscentyear00burr}}</ref> ====Fragrance bases==== [[File:Perfume Organ, Grasse.jpg|upright|thumb|A "perfume organ", where perfumers utilize hundreds of essences, in [[Grasse]], France]] Instead of building a perfume from "ground up", many modern perfumes and colognes are made using ''fragrance bases'' or simply '''bases'''. Each base is essentially modular perfume that is blended from essential oils and aromatic chemicals, and formulated with a simple concept such as "[[Smell of freshly cut grass|fresh cut grass]]" or "juicy sour apple". Many of [[Guerlain]]'s ''Aqua Allegoria'' line, with their simple fragrance concepts, are good examples of what perfume fragrance bases are like. The effort used in developing bases by fragrance companies or individual perfumers may equal that of a marketed perfume, since they are useful in that they are reusable. On top of its reusability, the benefit in using bases for construction are quite numerous: #Ingredients with "difficult" or "overpowering" scents that are tailored into a blended base may be more easily incorporated into a work of perfume #A base may be better scent approximations of a certain thing than the extract of the thing itself. For example, a base made to embody the scent for "fresh dewy rose" might be a better approximation for the scent concept of a rose after rain than plain [[rose oil]]. Flowers whose scents cannot be extracted, such as [[gardenia]] or [[hyacinth (plant)|hyacinth]], are composed as bases from data derived from [[headspace technology]]. #A perfumer can quickly rough out a concept from a brief by combining multiple bases, then present it for feedback. Smoothing out the "edges" of the perfume can be done after a positive response. ===Reverse engineering=== Creating perfumes through reverse engineering with analytical techniques such as [[Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry]] (GC/MS) can reveal the "general" formula for any particular perfume. The difficulty of GC/MS analysis arises due to the complexity of a perfume's ingredients. This is particularly due to the presence of natural essential oils and other ingredients consisting of complex chemical mixtures. However, "anyone armed with good GC/MS equipment and experienced in using this equipment can today, within days, find out a great deal about the formulation of any perfume... customers and competitors can analyze most perfumes more or less precisely."<ref>Calkin, Robert R. & Jellinek, J. Stephen (1994). "Perfumery: practice and principles". ''John Wiley & Sons, Inc.''. {{ISBN|0-471-58934-9}}</ref> Antique or badly preserved perfumes undergoing this analysis can also be difficult due to the numerous degradation by-products and impurities that may have resulted from breakdown of the odorous compounds. Ingredients and compounds can usually be ruled out or identified using [[gas chromatograph]] (GC) smellers, which allow individual chemical components to be identified both through their physical properties and their scent. Reverse engineering of best-selling perfumes in the market is a very common practice in the fragrance industry due to the relative simplicity of operating GC equipment, the pressure to produce marketable fragrances, and the highly lucrative nature of the perfume market.<ref name=cbyear/> ===Copyright=== [[File:Fakeperfumes.jpg|right|thumb|An assorti of [[counterfeit]] perfumes (in a "kiosk" store)]] It is doubtful whether perfumes qualify as appropriate copyright subject matter under the US [[Copyright Act of 1976|Copyright Act]]. The issue has not yet been addressed by any US court. A perfume's scent is not eligible for [[trademark]] protection: the scent serves as the functional purpose of the product.<ref name="cp">{{citation | author=David A. Einhorn | author2=Lesley Portnoy | title=The Copyrightability of Perfumes: I Smell a Symphony | journal=Intellectual Property Today | date=April 2010 | url=http://www.iptoday.com/issues/2010/04/the-copyrightability-perfumes-i-smell-symphony.asp | access-date=9 March 2014 | archive-date=10 March 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310002503/http://www.iptoday.com/issues/2010/04/the-copyrightability-perfumes-i-smell-symphony.asp | url-status=live }}</ref> In 2006 the [[Dutch Supreme Court]] granted copyright protection to [[Lancôme]]'s perfume ''Tresor'' (''Lancôme v. Kecofa''). The [[French Supreme Court]] has twice taken the position that perfumes lack the creativity to constitute copyrightable expressions (''Bsiri-Barbir v. Haarman & Reimer'', 2006; ''Beaute Prestige International v. Senteur Mazal'', 2008).<ref name="cp" /> Sometimes, a knock-off perfume would use an altered name of the original perfume (for instance, now-discontinued ''Freya'' by [[Oriflame]] perfume has a similar-designed copy produced as "''Fre'''yy'''a''"). It is still questionable if perfume's "functional purpose" can be protected with technical patent (one which lasts 15 years). Apparently,{{According to whom|date=October 2020}} Russian "Novaya Zarya" labels their colognes as "hygienic lotions" for a similar reason. A counterexample: NovZar's more-than-century-old [[Chypre#Pre-1917_chypres|''Shipr'' chypre]] and Troinoi cologne are being produced by other companies in Russia in similar bottles. ====Numbered perfumery, "analogs"==== A different kind of copying perfumes is known in ex-USSR countries as "''номерная парфюмерия''" (literally "numbered perfumery"): A "number-making" company with perfumery equipment would use their own, one-style-for-all cheap bottle; ''de jure'' labeling a knock-off perfume as an "aroma in the direction of [the well-known perfume]" or a "version" of certain branded perfume. This way, the production costs of initially cheap scents are reduced, since the bottle is used neither for plain counterfeiting nor for subtle re-designing. The questionable part of numbered perfumery naming is the idea to openly mark perfume #XXX (say, #105) as either "type" or "version", or "''аромат направления''" (literally "aroma in the direction of") of a well-known perfum.<ref>One example being ''[[Fidji]]'' by ''[[Guy Laroche]]'' — this particular example can be found on [https://www.reni.su/product-category/zhenskiy/ Reni.su] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615081453/https://www.reni.su/product-category/zhenskiy/ |date=15 June 2020 }}.</ref> * Resellers in offline stores (in malls, airport shops) can offer "fillable" perfumery, sometimes using [[weasel word]]ing to justify the price. * Such perfumes usually get three-digit numbers as an officially registered name, which is stickered to the bottles. * When it comes to propellant, a "number" usually has an alcohol base [almost] without stabilization (which may give strong "alcohol base stench", altering perfume's scent into the "smell of cheapness" phenomenon). ** To avoid this, many "numbers" can be made with (di)propylenglicol base and come as "perfume oil(s)". PG or DPG based numbered perfumery comes in 50ml plastic bottles and is purposed for tiny rollers; (D)PG is not usable in spray bottles (while not affected by the "smell of cheapness" issue nonetheless). Some companies offer all of their own "numbers" in both alcohol based and (D)PG based variants. In small online "bulk", however (in purchases over 5000RUB), a whole 100ml bottle of such perfume (or 50ml bottle of "scent oil" of same "direction") costs only around 6 EUR. ==Health and environmental issues== Perfume ingredients, regardless of natural or synthetic origins, may all cause health or environmental problems when used. Although the areas are under active research, much remains to be learned about the effects of fragrance on human health and the environment. ===Immunological; asthma and allergy=== Evidence in peer-reviewed journals shows that some fragrances can cause asthmatic reactions in some individuals, especially those with severe or atopic asthma.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kumar P, Caradonna-Graham VM, Gupta S, Cai X, Rao PN, Thompson J |title=Inhalation challenge effects of perfume scent strips in patients with asthma |journal=Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. |volume=75 |issue=5 |pages=429–33 |date=November 1995 |pmid=7583865 }}</ref> Many fragrance ingredients can also cause headaches, allergic skin reactions<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Frosch PJ, Rastogi SC, Pirker C, etal |title=Patch testing with a new fragrance mix – reactivity to the individual constituents and chemical detection in relevant cosmetic products |journal=Contact Derm. |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=216–25 |date=April 2005 |pmid=15859994 |doi=10.1111/j.0105-1873.2005.00563.x |s2cid=5661020 }}</ref> or [[nausea]].<ref name="GushmanHanaHou">{{cite web | url = http://www.hanahou.com/pages/magazine.asp?Action=DrawArticle&ArticleID=373&MagazineID=23 | author = Deborah Gushman | title = The Nose Knows | access-date = 7 May 2008 | website = Hanahou.com | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080213153631/http://www.hanahou.com/pages/magazine.asp?Action=DrawArticle&ArticleID=373&MagazineID=23 | archive-date = 13 February 2008 | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Apostolidis S, Chandra T, Demirhan I, Cinatl J, Doerr HW, Chandra A |title=Evaluation of carcinogenic potential of two nitro-musk derivatives, musk xylene and musk tibetene in a host-mediated in vivo/in vitro assay system |journal=Anticancer Res. |volume=22 |issue=5 |pages=2657–62 |year=2002 |pmid=12529978 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schmeiser HH, Gminski R, Mersch-Sundermann V |title=Evaluation of health risks caused by musk ketone |journal=Int J Hyg Environ Health |volume=203 |issue=4 |pages=293–9 |date=May 2001 |pmid=11434209 |doi= 10.1078/1438-4639-00047}}</ref> In some cases, an excessive use of perfumes may cause [[allergy|allergic]] reactions of the skin. For instance, [[acetophenone]], [[ethyl acetate]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}} and [[acetone]]<ref name=cbyear/> while present in many perfumes, are also known or potential respiratory [[allergen]]s. Nevertheless, this may be misleading, since the harm presented by many of these chemicals (either natural or synthetic) is dependent on environmental conditions and their concentrations in a perfume. For instance, linalool, which is listed as an irritant, causes skin irritation when it degrades to peroxides, however the use of antioxidants in perfumes or reduction in concentrations can prevent this. As well, the [[furanocoumarin]] present in natural extracts of grapefruit or [[celery]] can cause severe allergic reactions and increase sensitivity to ultraviolet radiation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Furanocoumarins as potent chemical defenses |first=May |last=Berenbaum |url=http://www.life.illinois.edu/berenbaum/newpage1.htm |date=14 June 2010 |access-date=24 August 2011 |archive-date=11 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811071727/http://www.life.illinois.edu/berenbaum/newpage1.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Some research on natural aromatics have shown that many contain compounds that cause skin irritation.<ref name="udgiv">Environmental and Health Assessment of Substances in Household Detergents and Cosmetic Detergent Products [http://www2.mst.dk/common/Udgivramme/Frame.asp?pg=http://www2.mst.dk/udgiv/Publications/2001/87-7944-596-9/html/kap12_eng.htm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303232246/http://www2.mst.dk/common/Udgivramme/Frame.asp?pg=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.mst.dk%2Fudgiv%2FPublications%2F2001%2F87-7944-596-9%2Fhtml%2Fkap12_eng.htm|date=3 March 2016}}</ref> However some studies, such as IFRA's research claim that [[Perfumery's opopanax|opoponax]] is too dangerous to be used in perfumery, still lack scientific consensus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/04_sccp/docs/sccp_o_025b.pdf|title=SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE ON CONSUMER PRODUCTS : SCCP|website=Ec.europa.eu|access-date=19 February 2018|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073514/http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/04_sccp/docs/sccp_o_025b.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> It is also true that sometimes inhalation alone can cause skin irritation.{{Citation needed|date=September 2017}} [[File:Epikutanni-test.jpg|thumb|[[Patch test]]]] A number of national and international surveys have identified [[balsam of Peru]], often used in perfumes, as being in the "top five" allergens most commonly causing [[patch test]] reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics.<ref name="google2">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mrreTHuo54wC&q=balsam+of+peru+allergy&pg=PA352 |title=Biocompatibility of Dental Materials |author1=Gottfried Schmalz |author2=Dorthe Arenholt Bindslev |publisher= Springer|date= 2008|access-date=5 March 2014|isbn=9783540777823 }}</ref><ref name="google5">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kDWlWR5UbqQC&q=%22balsam+of+peru%22+allergy&pg=PT530 |title=Clinical Dermatology |author=Thomas P. Habif |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |date=2009 |access-date=6 March 2014|isbn=978-0323080378 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fmwYAgAAQBAJ&q=%22balsam+of+peru%22+allergy&pg=PT264 |page=264 |title=Conn's Current Therapy 2014: Expert Consult |author1=Edward T. Bope |author2=Rick D. Kellerman |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |date=2013 |access-date=6 March 2014 |isbn=9780323225724 |archive-date=10 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230110200718/https://books.google.com/books?id=fmwYAgAAQBAJ&q=%22balsam+of+peru%22+allergy&pg=PT264 |url-status=live }}</ref> A study in 2001 found that 3.8% of the general population patch tested was allergic to it.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FZqlfcIWh9oC&q=%22balsam+of+peru%22+allergy&pg=PA35 |title=Allergy in Practice |page=35|author1=T. Platts-Mills |author2=Johannes Ring |publisher= Springer|date=2006 |access-date=6 March 2014|isbn=9783540265849 }}</ref> Many perfumes contain components identical to balsam of Peru.<ref name="google3">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sSHIlWSOiroC&q=%22balsam+of+peru%22+allergy&pg=PA556 |title=Contact Dermatitis |author1=Jeanne Duus Johansen |author2=Peter J. Frosch |author3=Jean-Pierre Lepoittevin |page=556|publisher=Springer |date= 2010 |access-date=31 December 2015|isbn=9783642038273 }}</ref> Balsam of Peru is used as a marker for [[perfume allergy]]. Its presence in a cosmetic is denoted by the [[INCI]] term ''Myroxylon pereirae''.<ref name="rook">{{citation | author=M. H. Beck | author2=S. M. Wilkinson | chapter=Contact Dermatitis: Allergic | title=Rook's Textbook of Dermatology | volume=2 | edition=8th | year=2010 | publisher=Wiley | page=26.40}}</ref> Balsam of Peru has been banned by the [[International Fragrance Association]] since 1982 from use as a fragrance compound, but may be present as an extract or distillate in other products, where mandatory labelling is not required for usage of 0.4% or less.<ref name="google3"/> ===Carcinogenicity=== There is scientific evidence that nitro-musks such as [[musk xylene]] could cause cancer in some specific animal tests. These reports were evaluated by the EU Scientific Committee for Consumer Safety (SCCS, formerly the SCCNFP<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/consumer_safety/index_en.htm|title=Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety (SCCS) - Public Health - European Commission|website=Ec.europa.eu|access-date=19 February 2018|archive-date=22 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122065430/http://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/consumer_safety/index_en.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>) and musk xylene was found to be safe for continued use in cosmetic products.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/sccp/documents/out280_en.pdf|title=OPINION OF THE SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE ON COSMETIC PRODUCTS AND NON-FOOD PRODUCTS INTENDED FOR CONSUMERS CONCERNING MUSK XYLENE AND MUSK KETONE|website=Ec.europa.eu|access-date=4 September 2019|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028161257/https://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/sccp/documents/out280_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> It is in fact part of the procedures of the Cosmetic Regulation in Europe that materials classified as carcinogens require such a safety evaluation by the authorities to be allowed in cosmetic consumer products. Although other ingredients such as polycyclic [[synthetic musk]]s, have been reported to be positive in some in-vitro hormone assays,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schreurs RH, Legler J, Artola-Garicano E, etal |title=In vitro and in vivo antiestrogenic effects of polycyclic musks in zebrafish |journal=Environ. Sci. Technol. |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=997–1002 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14998010 |doi=10.1021/es034648y |bibcode=2004EnST...38..997S |s2cid=8660062 |url=https://research.vu.nl/ws/files/1949128/163484.pdf |access-date=2 October 2019 |archive-date=25 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225201417/https://research.vu.nl/ws/files/1949128/163484.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schreurs RH, Sonneveld E, Jansen JH, Seinen W, van der Burg B |title=Interaction of polycyclic musks and UV filters with the estrogen receptor (ER), androgen receptor (AR), and progesterone receptor (PR) in reporter gene bioassays |journal=Toxicol. Sci. |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=264–72 |date=February 2005 |pmid=15537743 |doi=10.1093/toxsci/kfi035 |doi-access=free }}</ref> these reports have been reviewed by various authorities. For example, for one of the main polycyclic musks [[Galaxolide|Galaxolide (HHCB)]] these reviews include those of the EU Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/sccp/documents/out179_en.pdf |title=Opinion on hhcb |website=Ec.europa.eu |access-date=17 February 2019 |archive-date=5 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305160030/http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/sccp/documents/out179_en.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> the EU's Priority Substances Review,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/947def3b-bbbf-473b-bc19-3bda7a8da910|title=European Union Risk Assessment Report : 1,3,4,6,7,8-HEXAHYDRO-4,6,6,7,8,8-HEXAMETHYLCYCLOPENTA-γ-2-BENZOPYRAN (1,3,4,6,7,8-HEXAHYDRO-4,6,6,7,8,8-HEXAMETHYLIN-DENO[5,6-C]PYRAN - HHCB)|website=Echa.europa.eu|access-date=4 September 2019|archive-date=19 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119013540/https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/947def3b-bbbf-473b-bc19-3bda7a8da910|url-status=live}}</ref> the EU Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risk,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/04_scher/docs/scher_o_086.pdf|title=Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks : SCHER Opinion on Risk Assessment Report on 1,3,4,6,7,8-HEXAHYDRO4,6,6,7,8,8-HEXAMETHYLCYCLOPENTA-γ-2-BENZOPYRAN (HHCB) Human Health Part|website=Ec.europa.eu|access-date=4 September 2019|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816172515/http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/04_scher/docs/scher_o_086.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> and more recently also the US EPA.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/workplans.html|title=TSCA Work Plan Chemicals - Existing Chemicals - OPPT - US EPA<!-- Bot generated title -->|website=Epa.gov|date=29 April 2015|access-date=19 February 2018|archive-date=1 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150901131114/http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/workplans.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The outcome of all of these reviews over the past decade or so is that there are no safety concerns for human health. Reviews with similar positive outcomes also exist for another main polycyclic musk (AHTN)—for instance, on its safe use in cosmetics by the EU.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/sccp/documents/out176_en.pdf |title=Opinion on ahtn |website=Ec.europa.eu |access-date=17 February 2019 |archive-date=21 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721105737/http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/sccp/documents/out176_en.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Many natural aromatics, such as oakmoss absolutes,<ref name=udgiv/><ref name="OakAranol">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rastogi SC, Bossi R, Johansen JD, etal |title=Content of oak moss allergens atranol and chloroatranol in perfumes and similar products |journal=Contact Derm. |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=367–70 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15274728 |doi=10.1111/j.0105-1873.2004.00379.x |s2cid=38375267 }}</ref> [[basil]] oil, [[rose oil]] and many others contain allergens or carcinogenic compounds, the safety of which is either governed by regulations (e.g. allowed methyl eugenol levels in the EU Cosmetics Regulation (Entry{{nbsp}}102, Annex{{nbsp}}III of the EU Cosmetics Regulation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:2009R1223:20130711:en:PDF|format=PDF|title=B REGULATION (EC) No 1223/2009 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 30 November 2009 on cosmetic products|website=Eur-lex.europa.eu|access-date=4 September 2019|archive-date=3 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003061845/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:2009R1223:20130711:en:PDF|url-status=live}}</ref>) or through various limitations set by the International Fragrance Association.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifraorg.org/en-us/standards|title=standards - IFRA International Fragrance Association - in every sense|website=Ifraorg.org|access-date=19 February 2018|archive-date=1 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301073257/http://www.ifraorg.org/en-us/standards|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Environmental=== [[File:Flickr - dlisbona - Perfume stall in Cairo metro.jpg|thumb|upright|Perfume stall in [[Cairo]]]] ====Pollution==== Synthetic musks are pleasant in smell and relatively inexpensive, as such they are often employed in large quantities to cover the unpleasant scent of laundry detergents and many personal cleaning products. Due to their large-scale use, several types of synthetic musks have been found in human fat and milk,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Duedahl-Olesen L, Cederberg T, Pedersen KH, Højgård A |title=Synthetic musk fragrances in trout from Danish fish farms and human milk |journal=Chemosphere |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=422–31 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16182860 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.02.004 |bibcode=2005Chmsp..61..422D }}</ref> as well as in the sediments and waters of the [[Great Lakes]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Peck AM, Linebaugh EK, Hornbuckle KC |title=Synthetic Musk Fragrances in Lake Erie and Lake Ontario Sediment Cores |journal=Environ. Sci. Technol. |volume=40 |issue=18 |pages=5629–35 |date=September 2006 |pmid=17007119 |doi= 10.1021/es060134y|pmc=2757450|bibcode=2006EnST...40.5629P }}</ref> These pollutants may pose additional health and environmental problems when they enter human and animal diets. ====Species endangerment==== The demands for aromatic materials such as sandalwood, agarwood, and musk have led to the endangerment of these species, as well as illegal trafficking and harvesting. ===Safety regulations=== The US FDA controls the safety of perfumes through their ingredients and requires that they be tested to the extent that they are [[Generally recognized as safe]] (GRAS). Due to the need for protection of trade secrets, companies rarely give the full listing{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} of ingredients regardless of their effects on health.{{doubtful|date=February 2023}} In the EU, as from 11 March 2005, the mandatory listing of a set of 26 recognized fragrance allergens was enforced.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2003:066:0026:0035:EN:PDF|title=DIRECTIVE 2003/15/EC|website=Eur-lex.europa.eu|access-date=19 February 2018|archive-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521031743/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2003:066:0026:0035:en:PDF|url-status=live}}</ref> The requirement to list these materials is dependent on the intended use of the final product. The limits above which the allergens are required to be declared are 0.001% for products intended to remain on the skin, and 0.01% for those intended to be rinsed off. This has resulted in many old perfumes like chypres and [[fougère]] classes, which traditionally make use of oakmoss extract, being reformulated.{{Citation needed|reason=It would be nice with a citation showing that that’s the reason they got reformulated.|date=September 2022}} ==Preserving perfume== [[File:Dokumentation av utställningen Passion för parfym, 2007, Hallwylska museet - Hallwylska museet - 86456.tif|thumb|upright|Perfumes in a museum]] [[File:Abbey, Edwin Austin - Potpourri - 1899.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Potpourri]]'', by [[Edwin Austin Abbey]], 1899]] Fragrance compounds in perfumes will degrade or break down if improperly stored in the presence of [[heat]], [[light]], [[oxygen]], and [[Dirt|extraneous organic materials]]. Proper preservation of perfumes involves keeping them away from sources of heat and storing them where they will not be exposed to light. An opened bottle will keep its aroma intact for several years, as long as it is well stored.<ref name=Burr /> However, the presence of oxygen in the head space of the bottle and environmental factors will in the long run alter the smell of the fragrance. Perfumes are best preserved when kept in light-tight [[aluminium]] bottles or in their original packaging when not in use, and refrigerated to relatively low temperatures: between 3–7 °C (37–45 °F). Although it is difficult to completely remove oxygen from the headspace of a stored flask of fragrance, opting for spray dispensers instead of rollers and "open" bottles will minimize oxygen exposure. Sprays also have the advantage of isolating fragrance inside a bottle and preventing it from mixing with dust, skin, and detritus, which would degrade and alter the quality of a perfume. There exist several [[archives]] and [[museums]] devoted to the preservation of historical perfumes, namely the [[Osmothèque]], which stocks over 3,000 perfumes from the past two millennia in their original formulations. All scents in their collection are preserved in non-[[actinic]] glass flasks flushed with [[argon]] gas, stored in [[Thermal insulation|thermally insulated]] compartments maintained at {{convert|12|°C|°F|0}} in a large vault.<ref>[http://www.beautyfashion.com/archives/LOsmotheque.html Colton, Sarah, "L'Osmothèque—Preserving The Past To Ensure The Future", Beauty Fashion] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615174831/http://www.beautyfashion.com/archives/LOsmotheque.html |date=15 June 2010 }}</ref> ==Lists of perfumes== {{further|List of perfumes|List of essential oils|List of celebrity-branded fragrances}} ==See also== * {{Annotated link|Odor}} ** {{Annotated link|Pheromone}} * {{Annotated link|Eau de toilette}} ** {{Annotated link|Eau de Cologne}} ** {{Annotated link|Scented water}} * {{Annotated link|Essential oil}} ** [[Aromatherapy]] – Use of aromas during meditation or relaxation * {{Annotated link|Category:Fragrance companies|Fragrance companies}} ** {{Annotated link|Fragrance Museum}} ** {{Annotated link|Johann Maria Farina gegenüber dem Jülichs-Platz|John Maria Farina opposite Jülich's Square}} ** {{Annotated link|FiFi Awards}} * {{Annotated link|Potpourri}} * {{Annotated link|Pomander}} * {{Annotated link|Fragrance lamp}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== *Burr, Chandler (2004). "The Emperor of Scent: A True Story of Perfume and Obsession" ''Random House Publishing''. {{ISBN|978-0-375-75981-9}} *Edwards, Michael (1997). "Perfume Legends: French Feminine Fragrances". ''Crescent House Publishing''. {{ISBN|0-646-27794-4}}. *{{Cite book |last=Ellena |first=Jean-Claude |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yrZNEAAAQBAJ |title=Atlas of Perfumed Botany |trans-title=Atlas de botanique parfumée|date=2022 |translator=Erik Butler|origyear=2020 Flammarion, Paris|publisher=[[MIT Press]] |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]|isbn=978-0-262-04673-2 }} *Klymentiev, Maksym. "Creating Spices for the Mind: The Origins of Modern Western Perfumery". The Senses and Society. Vol. 9, 2014, issue 2. *Moran, Jan (2000). "Fabulous Fragrances II: A Guide to Prestige Perfumes for Women and Men". ''Crescent House Publishing''. {{ISBN|0-9639065-4-2}}. *Turin, Luca (2006). "The Secret of Scent". ''Faber & Faber''. {{ISBN|0-571-21537-8}}. *Stamelman, Richard: "Perfume – Joy, Obsession, Scandal, Sin". ''Rizzoli''. {{ISBN|978-0-8478-2832-6}}. A cultural history of fragrance from 1750 to the present day. *Süskind, Patrick (2006). "Perfume: The Story of a Murderer". ''Vintage Publishing'' (English edition). {{ISBN|978-0-307-27776-3}}. A novel of perfume, obsession and serial murder. Also released as a movie with same name in 2006. ==External links== * {{Commons category-inline}} * [http://www.ifraorg.org/ IFRA]: International Fragrance Association * [http://www.fragrance.org/ The Fragrance Foundation] "FiFi" * [http://www.bsp.org.uk/ The British Society of Perfumers] {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}} {{Perfume}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Perfumery| ]] [[Category:Cosmetics]] [[Category:Toiletry]] [[Category:Perfumes| ]] Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Templates used on this page: Perfume (edit) Template:About (edit) Template:According to whom (edit) Template:Annotated link (edit) Template:Authority control (edit) Template:By whom (edit) Template:Catalog lookup link (edit) Template:Category handler (edit) Template:Citation (edit) Template:Citation needed (edit) Template:Cite book (edit) Template:Cite journal (edit) Template:Cite news (edit) Template:Cite web (edit) Template:Commons category-inline (edit) Template:Convert (edit) Template:DMCA (edit) Template:Delink (edit) Template:Doubtful (edit) Template:Fix (edit) Template:Fix-span (edit) Template:Further (edit) Template:IPA (edit) Template:IPA-fr (edit) Template:IPAc-en (edit) Template:ISBN (edit) Template:Lang (edit) Template:Lang-fr (edit) Template:Main (edit) Template:Main other (edit) Template:Nbsp (edit) Template:Perfume (edit) Template:Perfumes (view source) Template:R from move (edit) Template:Reflist (edit) Template:Reflist/styles.css (edit) Template:Self-published inline (edit) Template:Self-published source (edit) Template:Short description (edit) Template:Sister-inline (edit) Template:Spaces (edit) Template:Use dmy dates (edit) Template:Webarchive (edit) Template:Yesno (edit) Template:Yesno-no (edit) Template:Yesno-yes (edit) Module:Annotated link (view source) Module:Arguments (edit) Module:Catalog lookup link (edit) Module:Category handler (edit) Module:Category handler/data (view source) Module:Check for unknown parameters (edit) Module:Check isxn (edit) Module:Citation/CS1 (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/COinS (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/Date validation (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/Whitelist (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css (edit) Module:Commons link (view source) Module:Convert (edit) Module:Convert/data (edit) Module:Convert/text (edit) Module:DecodeEncode (view source) Module:Delink (view source) Module:Format link (edit) Module:Hatnote (edit) Module:Hatnote/styles.css (edit) Module:Hatnote list (edit) Module:IPA/styles.css (view source) Module:IPAc-en (edit) Module:IPAc-en/data (edit) Module:IPAc-en/phonemes (edit) Module:IPAc-en/pronunciation (edit) Module:Labelled list hatnote (edit) Module:String (edit) Module:Unsubst (edit) Module:Yesno (edit) Discuss this page