Confucianism Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ===Social morality and ethics=== {{further|Three Fundamental Bonds and Five Constant Virtues}} <!--"Five precepts" links here. Please adjust link if this subsection is removed or renamed. Thanks.--> [[File:张挥公大殿.jpg|thumb|Worship at the Great Temple of Lord Zhang Hui ({{zhi|s=张挥公大殿|p=Zhāng Huī gōng dàdiàn}}), the cathedral [[ancestral shrine]] of the [[Zhang (surname)|Zhang]] lineage corporation, at their [[ancestral home (Chinese)|ancestral home]] in [[Qinghe County, Hebei|Qinghe]], [[Hebei]]]] [[File:Mazhan Zhen - Houxian Cun - P1220012.JPG|thumb|Ancestral temple of the [[Zeng]] lineage and Houxian village cultural centre, [[Cangnan County|Cangnan]], [[Zhejiang]]]] As explained by Stephan Feuchtwang, the order coming from Heaven preserves the world, and has to be followed by humanity finding a "middle way" between yin and yang forces in each new configuration of reality. Social harmony or morality is identified as patriarchy, which is expressed in the worship of ancestors and deified progenitors in the male line, at [[ancestral shrines]].{{sfnb|Feuchtwang|2016|p=146}} Confucian ethical codes are described as humanistic.<ref name=Juergensmeyer/> They may be practiced by all the members of a society. Confucian ethics is characterised by the promotion of virtues, encompassed by the Five Constants, elaborated by Confucian scholars out of the inherited tradition during the [[Han dynasty]].<ref name="Runes">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofphil0000unse/page/338 |title=Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Philosophical Library |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-8022-2388-3 |editor-last=Runes |editor-first=Dagobert D. |page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofphil0000unse/page/338 338]}}</ref> The Five Constants are:<ref name=Runes/> * ''[[Ren (Confucianism)|Ren]]'' (benevolence, humaneness) * ''[[Yi (philosophy)|Yi]]'' (righteousness, justice) * ''[[Li (Confucianism)|Li]]'' (propriety, rites) * ''Zhi'' ({{zhi|c={{linktext|智}}|p=zhì}}: wisdom, knowledge) * ''[[Xin (virtue)|Xin]]'' (sincerity, faithfulness) These are accompanied by the classical four virtues ({{zhi|s=四字|p=sìzì}}), one of which (''Yi'') is also included among the Five Constants: * ''Yi'' (see above) * [[Loyalty]] ({{lang-zh|labels=no|c=忠|p=zhōng}}) * [[Filial piety]] ({{lang-zh|labels=no|c=孝|p=xiào}}) * {{linktext|Continence}} ({{lang-zh|labels=no|t={{linktext|節}}|s={{linktext|节}}|p=jié}}) There are many other traditionally Confucian values, such as {{zhl|s={{linktext|诚}}|p=chéng|l=honesty}}, {{zhl|c={{linktext|勇}}|p=yǒng|l=bravery}}, {{zhl|c={{linktext|廉}}|p=lián|l=incorruptibility}}, {{zhl|c={{linktext|恕}}|p=shù|l=kindness, forgiveness}}, a {{zhl|s={{linktext|耻}}|p=chǐ|l=sense of right and wrong}}, {{zhl|s={{linktext|温}}|p=wēn|l=gentleness}}, {{zhl|c={{linktext|良}}|p=liáng|l=kindheartenedness}}, {{zhl|c={{linktext|恭}}|p=gōng|l=respect}}, {{zhl|s={{linktext|俭}}|p=jiǎn|l=frugality}}, and {{zhi|s={{linktext|让}}|p=ràng|l=modesty}}). ====Ren==== {{Main|Ren (Confucianism)}} ''Ren'' is the Confucian virtue denoting the good feeling a virtuous human experiences when being [[altruistic]]. It is exemplified by a normal adult's protective feelings for children. It is considered the essence of the human being, endowed by Heaven, and at the same time the means by which someone may act according to the principle of Heaven and become one with it.{{sfnb|Tay|2010|p=102}} [[Yan Hui (disciple of Confucius)|Yan Hui]], Confucius's most outstanding student, once asked his master to describe the rules of ''ren'' and Confucius replied, "one should see nothing improper, hear nothing improper, say nothing improper, do nothing improper."<ref>Analects 12:1</ref> Confucius also defined ''ren'' in the following way: "wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others."<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=http://ctext.org/analects/yong-ye/zh?en=on |chapter=Yong Ye |via=中國哲學書電子化計劃 (ctext.org) |title=論語 |language=zh,en |script-chapter=zh:雍也 }}</ref> Another meaning of ''ren'' is "not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself."<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=http://ctext.org/analects/yan-yuan/zh?en=on |chapter=Yan Yuan |via=中國哲學書電子化計劃 (ctext.org) |title=論語 |language=zh,en |script-chapter=zh:顏淵}}</ref> Confucius also said, "''ren'' is not far off; he who seeks it has already found it." ''Ren'' is close to man and never leaves him. ====Rite and centring==== [[File:Guan County Temple of Confucius.jpg|thumb|Temple of Confucius in [[Dujiangyan City|Dujiangyan]], [[Chengdu]], [[Sichuan]]]] [[File:Korean Confucianism-Chugyedaeje-02.jpg|thumb|[[Korean Confucianism|Korean Confucian]] rite in [[Jeju Province|Jeju]]]] {{Main|Li (Confucianism)}} ''Li'' ({{zh|labels=no|t=禮|s=礼}}) is a word which finds its most extensive use in [[Confucian]] and post-Confucian [[Chinese philosophy]]. ''[[Li (Confucianism)|Li]]'' is variously translated as '[[Ritual|rite]]' or '[[reason]]', 'ratio' in the pure sense of [[Veda|Vedic]] {{transliteration|sa|[[ṛta]]}} ('right', 'order') when referring to the [[cosmos|cosmic]] law, but when referring to its realisation in the context of human social behaviour it has also been translated as '[[convention (norm)|customs]]', 'measures' and 'rules', among other terms. ''Li'' also means religious rites which establish relations between humanity and the gods. According to Stephan Feuchtwang, rites are conceived as "what makes the invisible visible", making possible for humans to cultivate the underlying order of nature. Correctly performed rituals move society in alignment with earthly and heavenly (astral) forces, establishing the harmony of the three realms—Heaven, Earth and humanity. This practice is defined as "centering" ({{zhi|c=央|p=yāng}} or {{zhi|c=中|p=zhōng}}). Among all things of creation, humans themselves are "central" because they have the ability to cultivate and centre natural forces.{{sfnb|Feuchtwang|2016|p=150}} ''Li'' embodies the entire web of interaction between humanity, human objects, and nature. Confucius includes in his discussions of ''li'' such diverse topics as learning, tea drinking, titles, mourning, and governance. [[Xunzi (philosopher)|Xunzi]] cites "songs and laughter, weeping and lamentation{{nbsp}}... rice and millet, fish and meat{{nbsp}}... the wearing of ceremonial caps, embroidered robes, and patterned silks, or of fasting clothes and mourning clothes{{nbsp}}... spacious rooms and secluded halls, soft mats, couches and benches" as vital parts of the fabric of ''li''. Confucius envisioned proper government being guided by the principles of ''li''. Some Confucians proposed that all human beings may pursue perfection by learning and practising ''li''. Overall, Confucians believe that governments should place more emphasis on ''li'' and rely much less on penal punishment when they govern. ====Loyalty==== Loyalty ({{zhi|c=忠|p=zhōng}}) is particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius's students belonged, because the most important way for an ambitious young scholar to become a prominent official was to enter a ruler's civil service. Confucius himself did not propose that "might makes right", but rather that a superior should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude. In addition, loyalty does not mean subservience to authority. This is because reciprocity is demanded from the superior as well. As Confucius stated "a prince should employ his minister according to the rules of propriety; ministers should serve their prince with faithfulness (loyalty)."<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=http://ctext.org/analects/ba-yi |title=The Analects |chapter= Ba Yi |via=Chinese Text Project}}</ref> Similarly, [[Mencius]] also said that "when the prince regards his ministers as his hands and feet, his ministers regard their prince as their belly and heart; when he regards them as his dogs and horses, they regard him as another man; when he regards them as the ground or as grass, they regard him as a robber and an enemy."<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=http://ctext.org/mengzi/li-lou-ii |title=Mengzi |chapter= Li Lou II |via=Chinese Text Project}}</ref> Moreover, Mencius indicated that if the ruler is incompetent, he should be replaced. If the ruler is evil, then the people have the right to overthrow him.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=http://ctext.org/mengzi/liang-hui-wang-ii/zh?en=on |chapter=Liang Hui Wang xia |via=中國哲學書電子化計劃 (ctext.org)|title=孟子 |language=zh,en |script-chapter=zh:梁惠王下 }}</ref> A good Confucian is also expected to remonstrate with his superiors when necessary.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=http://ctext.org/analects/xian-wen/zh?en=on |chapter=Xian Wen |via=中國哲學書電子化計劃 (ctext.org) |title=論語 |language=zh,en |script-chapter=zh:憲問}}</ref> At the same time, a proper Confucian ruler should also accept his ministers' advice, as this will help him govern the realm better. In later ages, however, emphasis was often placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled. Like filial piety, loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes in China. Nonetheless, throughout the ages, many Confucians continued to fight against unrighteous superiors and rulers. Many of these Confucians suffered and sometimes died because of their conviction and action.<ref>Example: [[Hai Rui]] in the Ming dynasty, {{ill|Yuan Chang|zh|袁昶}} in the Qing, and so forth.</ref> During the Ming-Qing era, prominent Confucians such as [[Wang Yangming]] promoted individuality and independent thinking as a counterweight to subservience to authority.<ref>Wang Yangming, Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-Ming, Wing-tsit Chan tran. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 159.</ref> The famous thinker Huang Zongxi also strongly criticised the autocratic nature of the imperial system and wanted to keep imperial power in check.<ref>William Theodore De Bary, Waiting for the Dawn: A Plan for the Prince (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 91–110.</ref> Many Confucians also realised that loyalty and filial piety have the potential of coming into conflict with one another. This may be true especially in times of social chaos, such as during the period of the [[Transition from Ming to Qing|Ming-Qing transition]].<ref>See the discussion in {{lang|zh-hant|何冠彪}} He Guanbiao, {{lang|zh-hant|生與死 : 明季士大夫的抉擇}} (Taipei: Lianjing Chuban Shiye Gongsi, 1997).</ref> ====Filial piety==== [[File:尝粪心忧.JPG|thumb|Fourteenth of ''[[The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars]]'']] {{Main|Filial piety}} In Confucian philosophy, {{zht|c=孝|p=xiào|tr=filial piety}} is a virtue of respect for one's parents and ancestors, and of the hierarchies within society: father–son, elder–junior and male–female.{{sfnb|Feuchtwang|2016|p=146}} The Confucian classic ''[[Classic of Filial Piety|Xiaojing]]'' ("Book of Piety"), thought to be written during the Qin or Han dynasties, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of ''xiao''. The book, a conversation between Confucius and his disciple [[Zeng Shen]], is about how to set up a good society using the principle of ''xiao''.<ref name="Chang">{{Cite book |last1=Wonsuk Chang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UC1mvUKaU8C&pg=PA68 |title=Confucianism in Context: Classic Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, East Asia and Beyond |last2=Leah Kalmanson |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4384-3191-8 |page=68}}</ref> In more general terms, filial piety means to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good conduct not just towards parents but also outside the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to perform the duties of one's job well so as to obtain the material means to support parents as well as carry out sacrifices to the ancestors; not be rebellious; show love, respect and support; the wife in filial piety must obey her husband absolutely and take care of the whole family wholeheartedly. display courtesy; ensure male heirs, uphold fraternity among brothers; wisely advise one's parents, including dissuading them from moral unrighteousness, for blindly following the parents' wishes is not considered to be ''xiao''; display sorrow for their sickness and death; and carry out [[sacrifice]]s after their death. Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese culture, and it is the main concern of a large number of stories. One of the most famous collections of such stories is "[[The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars]]". These stories depict how children exercised their filial piety in the past. While China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them; historian Hugh D.R. Baker calls respect for the family the only element common to almost all Chinese believers.<ref>Baker, Hugh D.R. ''Chinese Family and Kinship''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979. p. 98</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). 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