Brahman Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ===Brahman as a metaphysical concept=== ''Brahman'' is the key metaphysical concept in various schools of Hindu philosophy. It is the theme in its diverse discussions to the two central questions of [[metaphysics]]: what is ultimately real, and are there principles applying to everything that is real?<ref>Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/metaphysics/ Metaphysics], Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, {{ISBN|978-0415073103}}, Accessed (13 June 2015)</ref> ''Brahman'' is the ultimate "eternally, constant" reality, while the observed universe is a different kind of reality but one which is "temporary, changing" ''[[Maya (illusion)|Maya]]'' in various orthodox Hindu schools. Maya pre-exists and co-exists with ''Brahman''—the Ultimate Reality, The Highest Universal, the Cosmic Principles.<ref name=aegough>Archibald Edward Gough (2001), ''The Philosophy of the Upanishads and Ancient Indian Metaphysics'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415245227}}, pages 47–48</ref> ==== Atman: the ultimate reality ==== {{anchor | Atman }} In addition to the concept of ''Brahman'', Hindu metaphysics includes the concept of [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]—or Self, which is also considered ultimately real.<ref name=aegough/> The various schools of Hinduism, particularly the [[dualism (Indian philosophy)|dual]] and non-dual schools, differ on the nature of Atman, whether it is distinct from ''Brahman'', or same as ''Brahman''. Those that consider ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'' as distinct are theistic, and [[Dvaita Vedanta]] and later [[Nyaya]] schools illustrate this premise.<ref>Roy W. Perrett (Editor, 2000), ''Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics'', Volume 3, Taylor & Francis, {{ISBN|978-0815336082}}, page xvii;<br>K. K. Chakrabarti (1999), ''Classical Indian Philosophy of Mind: The Nyaya Dualist Tradition'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791441718}} pages 279–292</ref> Those that consider ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'' as same are monist or pantheistic, and [[Advaita Vedanta]], later [[Samkhya]]<ref>John C. Plott et al (2000), ''Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, pages 60-62</ref> and [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] schools illustrate this metaphysical premise.<ref>[[Julius Lipner]] (2004), ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, pages 22–23</ref><ref>Laurie Patton (2004), ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, pages 45–50</ref><ref>J. D. Fowler (1996), ''Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices'', Sussex University Press, {{ISBN|978-1898723608}}, pages 135–137</ref> In schools that equate ''Brahman'' with ''Atman'', ''Brahman'' is the sole, ultimate reality.<ref name="acdas"/> The predominant teaching in the Upanishads is the spiritual identity of Self within each human being, with the Self of every other human being and living being, as well as with the supreme, ultimate reality ''Brahman''.<ref>William Indich (2000), ''Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812512}}, page 5</ref><ref>Paul Hacker (1978), Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie Sankara: Avidya, Namarupa, Maya, Isvara, in Kleine Schriften (Editor: L. Schmithausen), Franz Steiner Verlag, Weisbaden, pages 101–109 (in German), also pages 69–99;<br>[http://www.vedantaadvaita.org/AdvaitaVedanta_3.htm Advaita Vedanta - A Bird's Eye View], Topic III: ''Philosophy of Advaita Vedanta'', D. Krishna Ayyar (2011)</ref> ==== Maya: the perceived reality==== {{anchor | Maya }} In the metaphysics of the major schools of Hinduism, ''Maya'' is perceived reality, one that does not reveal the hidden principles, the true reality—the ''Brahman''. ''Maya'' is unconscious, ''Brahman-Atman'' is conscious. Maya is the literal and the effect, ''Brahman'' is the figurative ''Upādāna''—the principle and the cause.<ref name=aegough/> Maya is born, changes, evolves, dies with time, from circumstances, due to invisible principles of nature. Atman-''Brahman'' is eternal, unchanging, invisible principle, unaffected absolute and resplendent consciousness. Maya concept, states Archibald Gough, is "the indifferent aggregate of all the possibilities of emanatory or derived existences, pre-existing with Brahman", just like the possibility of a future tree pre-exists in the seed of the tree.<ref name=aegough/> ==== Nirguna and Saguna Brahman ==== {{anchor | Saguna | Nirguna | Saguna and nirguna | Saguna and Nirguna | Saguna and nirguna brahman | Saguna and Nirguna Brahman }} Brahman, the ultimate reality, is both with and without attributes. In this context, [[Para Brahman]] is formless and [[omniscient]] [[Ishvara]] - the god or [[Paramatman]] and [[Om]], where as [[Saguna Brahman]] is manifestation or [[avatara]] of god in personified form. While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence of ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'', they also expound on ''Brahman'' as ''[[saguna Brahman]]''—the ''Brahman'' with attributes, and ''[[nirguna Brahman]]''—the ''Brahman'' without attributes.<ref name="dx.doi.org">{{Cite journal | doi=10.7825/2164-6279.1250|title = Hierarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning the "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta| journal=Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies| volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=1–6|year = 2001|last1 = Rambachan|first1 = Anantanand|doi-access=free}}</ref> The ''nirguna Brahman'' is the ''Brahman'' as it really is, however, the ''saguna Brahman'' is posited as a means to realizing ''nirguna Brahman'', but the Hinduism schools declare ''saguna Brahman'' to be a part of the ultimate ''nirguna Brahman''<ref name=williamw/> The concept of the ''saguna Brahman'', such as in the form of [[avatar]]s, is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened.<ref name=williamw>William Wainwright (2012), [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God], ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Stanford University, (Accessed on: 13 June 2015)</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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