Taoism Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! == Practices == [[file:Shi Rui-Xuan Yuan Inquires of the Dao.jpg|thumb|290px|''Xuan Yuan [Yellow Emperor] Inquires of the Tao'', [[National Palace Museum]], [[Taipei]], Early Ming Dynasty (1368–1644). This silk scroll painting is based on the story that the Yellow Emperor went out to the [[Kongtong Mountains]] to meet with the famous Taoist sage [[Guang Chengzi|Guangchengzi]]]] Some key elements of Taoist practice include a commitment to self-cultivation, wu wei, and attunement to the patterns of the Tao.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=131}} Most Taoists throughout history have agreed on the importance of self cultivation through various practices, which were seen as ways to transform oneself and integrate oneself to the deepest realities.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=74}} Communal rituals are important in most Taoist traditions, as are methods of self-cultivation. Taoist self-cultivation practices tend to focus on the transformation of the heartmind together with bodily substances and energies (like ''jing'' and ''qi'') and their connection to natural and universal forces, patterns, and powers.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=191-93}} Despite the detachment from reality and dissent from Confucian humanism that the ''Tao Te Ching'' teaches, Taoists were and are generally not [[Misanthropy|misanthropes]] or [[Nihilism|nihilists]] and see humans as an important class of things in the world.<ref name="Stefon-2016">{{Cite web |last=Stefon |first=Matt |date=2016-12-05 |title=ren |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/ren |access-date=2023-04-23 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en |archive-date=23 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423145308/https://www.britannica.com/topic/ren |url-status=live }}</ref> However, in most Taoist views humans were not held to be especially important in comparison to other aspects of the world and Taoist metaphysics that were seen as equally or more special.<ref name="Stefon-2016" /> Similarly, some Taoists had similar views on their gods or the gods of other religions.<ref name="Harari-2015" /> According to Louis Komjathy, Taoist practice is a diverse and complex subject that can include "aesthetics, art, dietetics, ethics, health and longevity practice, meditation, ritual, seasonal attunement, scripture study, and so forth."{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=131}} Throughout the history of Taoism, mountains have occupied a special place for Taoist practice. They are seen as sacred spaces and as the ideal places for Taoist cultivation and Taoist monastic or eremitic life, which may include "cloud wandering" (yunyou) in the mountains and dwelling in mountain [[Hermitage (religious retreat)|hermitages]] (an) or [[grotto]]es (dong).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=182-92}} Tao can serve as a life energy instead of [[qi]] in some Taoist belief systems.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} === The nine practices === One of the earliest schemas for Taoist practice was the "nine practices" or "nine virtues" (jiǔxíng 九行), which were taught in the Celestial Masters school. These were drawn from classic Taoist sources, mainly the ''Tao Te Ching'', and are presented in the ''Laojun jinglu'' (''Scriptural Statutes of Lord Lao''; DZ 786).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=85-86}} The nine practices are:{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=86}} #Nonaction ([[wu wei|wúwéi]] 無為) #Softness and weakness (róuruò 柔弱) #Guarding the feminine (shǒucí 行守) #Being nameless (wúmíng 無名) #Clarity and stillness (qīngjìng 清靜) #Being adept (zhūshàn 諸善) #Being desireless (wúyù 無欲) #Knowing how to stop and be content (zhī zhǐzú 知止足) #Yielding and withdrawing (tuīràng 推讓) === Rituals === [[File:青羊宫法事.jpg|thumb|A Taoist ritual at the Gray Goat Temple (Qingyang Gong, 青羊宫) in [[Chengdu]], [[Sichuan]].]] [[File:02.20 總統出席「松山慈祐宮護國禳瘟清醮法會」 (49559117058).jpg|thumb|Taoist ritual specialists in a procession, Taiwan.]] Ancient [[Religion in China|Chinese religion]] made much use of [[sacrifice]]s to gods and ancestors, which could include slaughtered animals (such as pigs and ducks) or fruit. The Taoist [[List of Celestial Masters|Celestial Master]] [[Zhang Daoling]] rejected food and [[animal sacrifice]]s to the gods. Today, many [[Taoist temple]]s reject animal sacrifice.<ref>[[David "Race" Bannon]], "Chinese Medicine: From Temples to Taoism," T'ai Chi, Vol. 20, No. 3 (1996): 28–33.</ref> Sacrifices to the deities remains a key element of Taoist rituals however. There are various kinds of Taoist rituals, which may include presenting offerings, scripture reading, sacrifices, incantations, purification rites, confession, petitions and announcements to the gods, observing the ethical precepts, memorials, chanting, lectures, and communal feasts.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=145}}{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=143}} On particular holidays, such as the [[Qingming Festival|Qingming/Ching Ming festival]], street parades take place. These are lively affairs that involve firecrackers, the burning of [[hell money]], and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. They also variously include [[lion dance]]s and [[dragon dance]]s, human-occupied puppets (often of the [[Heibai Wuchang|"Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"]]), [[Kungfu|gongfu]], and [[palanquin]]s carrying images of deities. The various participants are not considered performers, but rather possessed by the gods and spirits in question.<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|1993|pp=28–29}}</ref> === Ethical precepts === Taking up and living by sets of ethical precepts is another important practice in Taoism. By the [[Tang dynasty]], Taoism had created a system of lay discipleship in which one took a set of [[Ten precepts (Taoism)]]. The [[Five precepts (Taoism)]] are identical to the Buddhist [[five precepts]] (which are to avoid: killing [both human and non-human animals], theft, sexual misconduct, lying, and [[Psychoactive drug|intoxicants]] like [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]].) The other five were a set of five injunctions:{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=74}}<blockquote> (6) I will maintain harmony with my ancestors and family and never disregard my kin; (7) When I see someone do good, I will support him with joy and delight; (8) When I see someone unfortunate, I will support him with dignity to recover good fortune; (9) When someone comes to do me harm, I will not harbor thoughts of revenge; (10) As long as all beings have not attained the Dao, I will not expect to do so myself.</blockquote>Apart from these common ethical precepts, Taoist traditions also have larger sets of precepts that are often reserved for ordained priests or monastics. === Divination and magic === A key part of many Taoist traditions is the practice of [[divination]]. There are many methods used by Chinese Taoists including [[I Ching]] divination, [[Chinese astrology|Chinese astrological]] divination, [[feng shui]] ([[Geomancy|geomantic]] divination), and the interpretation of various [[omen]]s.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=133-142}}<ref name="harvp|Silvers|2005|pp=129–132">{{harvp|Silvers|2005|pp=129–132}}</ref> [[Mediumship]] and [[exorcism]] is a key element of some Taoist traditions. These can include ''[[Tongji (spirit medium)|tongji]]'' mediumship and the practice of [[Fuji (planchette writing)|planchette writing]] or spirit writing.<ref name="harvp|Silvers|2005|pp=129–132"/> === Longevity practices === [[File:Chinese_woodcut,_Famous_medical_figures;_Sun_Simiao_Wellcome_L0039324.jpg|thumb|Sun Simiao as depicted by Gan Bozong, [[Woodblock printing|woodblock print]], Tang dynasty (618–907)]] [[File:Daoyin_tu_-_chart_for_leading_and_guiding_people_in_exercise_Wellcome_L0036007.jpg|thumb|Reconstructed drawings of guiding and pulling (Daoyin) exercises from the [[Mawangdui Silk Texts]].]] Taoist longevity methods are closely related to ancient [[Chinese medicine]]. Many of these methods date back to Tang dynasty figures like alchemist [[Sun Simiao]] (582–683) and the Highest Clarity Patriarch [[Sima Chengzhen]] (647–735).{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=131}} The goal of these methods range from better health and longevity to immortality. Key elements of these "nourishing life" ([[Yangsheng (Daoism)|yangsheng]]) methods include: [[moderation]] in all things (drink, food, etc.), adapting to the cycles of the [[season]]s by following injunctions regarding healing exercises ([[daoyin]]), and [[Breathwork (New Age)|breathwork]].{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=132-135}} A number of physical practices, like modern forms of [[qigong]], as well as modern internal martial arts ([[neijia]]) like [[Tai chi|Taijiquan]], [[Baguazhang]], [[Xing Yi Quan|Xingyiquan]], and [[Liuhebafa]], are practiced by Taoists as methods of cultivating health and longevity as well as eliciting internal alchemical transformations.<ref>{{harvp|Silvers|2005|pp=135–137}}</ref>{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=174}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=133}} However, these methods are not specifically Taoist and are often practiced outside of Taoist contexts.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=150-51}} Another key longevity method is "ingestion", which focuses on what one absorbs or consumes from one's environment and is seen as affecting what one becomes.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=138-39}} Diatectics, closely influenced by Chinese medicine, is a key element of ingestion practice, and there are numerous Taoist diet regimens for different effects (such as ascetic diets, monastic diets, therapeutic diets, and alchemical diets that use herbs and minerals).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=139}} One common practice is the [[Bigu (grain avoidance)|avoidance of grains (bigu)]].{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=140}} In certain cases, practices like [[vegetarianism]] and true fasting is also adopted (which may also be termed ''bigu'').{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=142-43}} "Qi ingestion" (fu qi) is a special practice that entails the absorption of environmental qi and the light of the sun, moon, stars and other astral effulgences and cosmic ethers as a way to enhance health and longevity.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=145}} Some Taoists thought of the human body as a spiritual nexus with thousands of ''[[Shen (Chinese religion)|shen]]''<ref name="Gurdon-2002e" /> (often 36,000),<ref name="Stevenson-2000">{{Cite book |last=Stevenson |first=Jay |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Eastern Philosophy |publisher=[[Alpha Books]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-02-863820-1 |location=Indianapolis |page=226 |language=en-US}}</ref> gods who were likely thought of as at least somewhat mental in nature because of the word's other meaning of consciousness, that could be communed with by doing various methods to manipulate the [[yin and yang]] of the body, as well as its qi.<ref name="Gurdon-2002e" /> These Taoists also thought of the human body as a metaphorical existence where three "[[cinnabar]] fields"<ref name="Gurdon-2002e" /> that represented a higher level of reality and/or a spiritual kind of cinnabar that does not exist in normal reality. A method of meditation used by these Taoists was "visualizing light" that was thought to be ''qi'' or another kind of life energy a Taoist substituted for ''qi<ref name="Gurdon-2002e" />'' or believed in the existence of instead. The light was then channeled through the three cinnabar fields, forming a "microcosmic orbit" or through the hands and feet for a "macrocosmic orbit".<ref name="Gurdon-2002e" /> The 36,000 ''shen'' regulated the body and bodily functions through a bureaucratic system "modeled after the Chinese system of government".<ref name="Stevenson-2000" /> Death occurs only when these gods leave, but life can be extended by meditating while visualizing them, doing good deeds, and avoiding [[meat]] and [[wine]].<ref name="Stevenson-2000" /> === Meditation === [[file:Stage1.gif|thumb|Illustration of Taoist meditation.]] There are many methods of Taoist meditation (often referred to as "stillness practice", ''jinggong''), some of which were strongly influenced by [[Buddhist meditation|Buddhist methods]].{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=131}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=133}} Some of the key forms of Taoist meditation are:{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=136-140}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=133}} * [[Apophatic theology|Apophatic]] or quietistic meditation, which was the main method of classical Taoism and can be found in classic texts like the'' Zhuangzi'', where it is termed "fasting the heartmind" (xinzhai).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=133-134}} This practice is also variously termed "embracing the one" (baoyi), "guarding the one" (shouyi), "quiet sitting" (jingzuo), and "sitting forgetfulness" ([[zuowang]]).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=134}} According to Louis Komjathy, this type of meditation "emphasizes emptiness and stillness; it is contentless, non-conceptual, and non-dualistic. One simply empties the heart-mind of all emotional and intellectual content."{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=134}} The texts of classical Taoism state that this meditation leads to the dissolution of the self and any sense of separate dualistic identity.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=135}} Sima Chengzhen's ''[[Zuowanglun|Zuowang lun]]'' is a key text that outlines this method.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=135}} The practice is also closely connected with the virtue of wuwei (inaction).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=137}} * Concentration meditation, focusing the mind on one theme, like the breath, a sound, a part of the body (like one of the dantiens), a diagram or mental image, a deity etc. A subset of this is called "guarding the one", which is interpreted in different ways. * Observation (guan)—according to [[Livia Kohn]], this method "encourages openness to all sorts of stimuli and leads to a sense of free-flowing awareness. It often begins with the recognition of physical sensations and subtle events in the body but may also involve paying attention to outside occurrences."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=137}} Guan is associated with deep listening and energetic sensitivity.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=132}} The term most often refers to "inner observation" (neiguan), a practice that developed through Buddhist influence (see: [[Vipaśyanā]]).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=133}} Neiguan entails developing introspection of one's body and mind, which includes being aware of the various parts of the body as well as the various deities residing in the body.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=136-140}} * [[Zhan zhuang]] ("post standing")—standing meditation in various postures. * Visualization (cunxiang) of various mental images, including deities, cosmic patterns, the lives of saints, various lights in the bodies organs, etc. This method is associated with the Supreme Clarity school, which first developed it.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=133}} === Alchemy === [[file:Chinese woodcut; Daoist internal alchemy (4) Wellcome L0038974.jpg|thumb|Illustration of Taoist neidan from the {{Lang|zh-latn|[[Xingming guizhi]]}} (''Pointers on Spiritual Nature and Bodily Life''), {{Circa|1615}} ([[Wanli Emperor|Wanli era]]).]] {{See also|Taoist alchemy|Neidan}} A key element of many schools of Taoism are [[Alchemy|alchemical]] practices, which include rituals, meditations, exercises, and the creation of various alchemical substances. The goals of alchemy include physical and spiritual transformation, aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, improving physical health, extending one's life, and even becoming an immortal ([[Xian (Taoism)|xian]]).<ref>{{harvp|Kohn|2000|p=672}}; {{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=228 & 103}}</ref> Taoist alchemy can be found in early Taoist scriptures like the ''[[Taiping Jing]]'' and the ''[[Baopuzi]]''.<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|Verellen|2004|pp=70–71}}; {{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=73}}</ref> There are two main kinds of alchemy, internal alchemy ([[neidan]]) and external alchemy ([[waidan]]). Internal alchemy (neidan, literally: "internal elixir"), which focuses on the transformation and increase of qi in the body, developed during the late imperial period (especially during the Tang) and is found in almost all Taoist schools today, though it is most closely associated with the [[Quanzhen School]].{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=170}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=133-136}} There are many systems of internal alchemy with different methods such as visualization and breathwork.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=170}} In the late Imperial period, neidan developed into complex systems that drew on numerous elements, including: classic Taoist texts and meditations, [[Yangsheng (Daoism)|yangsheng]], [[I Ching]] symbology, Taoist cosmology, external alchemy concepts and terms, [[Traditional Chinese medicine|Chinese medicine]], and Buddhist influences.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=136}} Neidan systems tend to be passed on through oral master-disciple lineages that are often to be secret.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=137}} Livia Kohn writes that the main goal of internal alchemy is generally understood as a set of three transformations: "from essence (jing) to energy ([[qi]]), from energy to spirit (shen), and from spirit to Dao."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=171}} Common methods for this include engaging the subtle body and activating the [[microcosmic orbit]].{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=171}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=137}}<ref name="Gurdon-2002e" /> Louis Komjathy adds that neidan seeks to create a transcendent spirit, usually called the "immortal embryo" (xiantai) or "yang spirit" (yangshen).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=136}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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