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Do not fill this in! == Forms and depictions == According to [[Gavin Flood]], "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox," whose attributes include opposing themes.<ref>For quotation "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=150}}</ref> The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him. === Destroyer and Benefactor === {{multiple image | align = left | image1 = Head of Bhairava - MET DP307219.jpg | width1 = 170 | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = Shiva meditating Rishikesh.jpg | width2 = 118 | alt2 = | caption2 = | footer = Shiva is represented in his many aspects.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC|year=1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226532301|pages=25–26|access-date=6 October 2016|archive-date=13 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813201531/https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC|url-status=live}}</ref> Left: [[Bhairava]] icon of the fierce form of Shiva, 16th century Nepal; right: Shiva as a meditating yogi in [[Rishikesh]]. }} In [[Yajurveda]], two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrifying (Sanskrit: ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|rudra}}'') and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śiva}}'') forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here".<ref>For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms, see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Chakravarti|1986}}, p. 7.</ref> In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.<ref>For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1988|pp=20–21}}.</ref> The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. The name Rudra reflects Shiva's fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name ''Rudra'' is derived from the root ''rud-'', which means "to cry, howl".<ref>For ''rud-'' meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Kramrisch|1981|p=5}}.</ref> [[Stella Kramrisch]] notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form ''raudra'', which means "wild, of ''rudra'' nature", and translates the name ''[[Rudra]]'' as "the wild one" or "the fierce god".<ref>Citation to M. Mayrhofer, ''Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary'', ''s.v.'' "rudra", is provided in: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Kramrisch|1981}}, p. 5.</ref> R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=301}} Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the ''[[Shiva Sahasranama|Shiva sahasranama]]'', where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=314}} Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher".{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=473}} Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kāla}} "time" and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Mahākāla}} "great time", which ultimately destroys all things.{{sfnm|Kramrisch|1994a|1p=476|Kramrisch|1981|2p=474}} The name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kāla}} appears in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=280}} [[Bhairava]] "terrible" or "frightful"{{sfn|Apte|1965|p=727|loc=left column}} is a fierce form associated with annihilation. In contrast, the name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śaṇkara}}, "beneficent"{{Sfn|Sharma| 1996| p=306}} or "conferring happiness"{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=481}} reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great [[Vedanta]] philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] ({{Circa|788|820}}),{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=92}} who is also known as Shankaracharya.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=476}} The name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śambhu}} (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|शम्भु}} swam-on its own; bhu-burn/shine) "self-shining/ shining on its own", also reflects this benign aspect.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=476}}{{sfn|Chakravarti|1986| pp= 28 (note 7), and p. 177}} === Ascetic and householder === {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = Indian - Shiva - Walters 25254.jpg | width1 = 125 | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = The Holy Family, Shiva, Parvati, with their sons Ganesha and Karttikeya, National Museum, New Delhi (cropped).jpg | width2 = 150 | alt2 = | caption2 = | footer = Shiva is depicted both as an ascetic yogi, and as a householder with his wife Parvati and sons Ganesha and Kartikeya }} Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic [[yogi]] and as a householder ([[grihasta]]), roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.<ref>For the contrast between ascetic and householder depictions, see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=150–151}}</ref> When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating.<ref>For Shiva's representation as a yogi, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=32}}.</ref> His epithet Mahāyogi ("the great Yogi: ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Mahā}}'' = "great", ''Yogi'' = "one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga.<ref>For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=23, 32, 150}}.</ref> While [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the [[Indian epic poetry|Epic period]] that the concepts of [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|tapas]], yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.<ref>For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=32}}.</ref> As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati, and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umāpati}} ("The husband of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umā}}") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umākānta}} and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umādhava}}, also appear in the ''sahasranama''.<ref>For {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umāpati}}, {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umākānta}} and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umādhava}} as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=278}}.</ref> {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umā}} in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Pārvatī}}.<ref>For {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umā}} as the oldest name, and variants including {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Pārvatī}}, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=40}}.</ref><ref>For {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Pārvatī}} identified as the wife of Shiva, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=479}}</ref> She is identified with [[Devi]], the Divine Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like [[Tripura Sundari]], [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Kamakshi]] and [[Minakshi]]. The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe.<ref name="Search for Meaning">Search for Meaning By Antonio R. Gualtieri</ref> His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout [[India]] and [[Nepal]] as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in [[South India|Southern India]] (especially in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]] and [[Karnataka]]) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in [[North India|Northern India]] by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.<ref>For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: {{harvnb|Gupta|1988|loc=''Preface''}}.</ref> Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva's children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of [[Mohini]], Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, [[Shasta (deity)|Shasta]] – identified with regional deities [[Ayyappan]] and [[Aiyanar]] – is born.<ref>{{cite book|last=Doniger|first=Wendy|title=Splitting the difference: gender and myth in ancient Greece and India|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=London|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZ8qfQbEJB4C&q=mohini+Vishnu&pg=PA263|pages=263–265|isbn=978-0226156415|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131654/https://books.google.com/books?id=JZ8qfQbEJB4C&q=mohini+Vishnu&pg=PA263|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Vanita69>{{cite book |title= Same-sex love in India: readings from literature and history|last= Vanita|first= Ruth |author2=Kidwai, Saleem |year= 2001|publisher= Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0312293246|page = 69}}</ref><ref name="P71">{{cite book|title= The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore|last= Pattanaik|first= Devdutt|year= 2001|publisher= Routledge|isbn= 978-1560231813|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&q=mohini&pg=PA71|page= 71|access-date= 7 November 2020|archive-date= 31 March 2024|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131655/https://books.google.com/books?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&q=mohini&pg=PA71|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>See [[Mohini#Relationship with Shiva]] for details</ref> In outskirts of Ernakulam in [[Kerala]], a deity named [[Vishnumaya]] is stated to be offspring of Shiva and invoked in local exorcism rites, but this deity is not traceable in Hindu pantheon and is possibly a local tradition with "vaguely Chinese" style rituals, states Saletore.<ref name=Saletore>{{cite book|author=RN Saletore|title=Indian Witchcraft|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ETz3_bv8t0cC&pg=PA93 |year=1981| publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-0391024809|pages=93}}</ref> In some traditions, Shiva has daughters like the serpent-goddess [[Manasa]] and [[Ashokasundari]].{{sfn|McDaniel|2004|p=[https://archive.org/details/offeringflowersf00mcda/page/n166 156]}}<ref name="mani">{{cite book |title = Puranic Encyclopaedia: a Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature |url = https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |year = 1975| isbn = 978-0842608220 | author = Vettam Mani|pages= [https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/page/62 62], 515–516}}</ref> According to Doniger, two regional stories depict demons [[Andhaka]] and [[Jalandhara]] as the children of Shiva who war with him, and are later destroyed by Shiva.<ref name=doniger1>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger|title=The Bedtrick: Tales of Sex and Masquerade|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KfA9ByNVjZ8C&pg=PA72 |year=2005|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0226156439|pages=72, 206}}</ref> === Iconographic forms === [[File:Shiva as the Lord of Dance LACMA edit.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Chola dynasty]] statue depicting Shiva dancing as [[Nataraja]] ([[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]])]] The depiction of Shiva as [[Nataraja]] ([[Sanskrit]] नटराज; ''Naṭarāja'') is a form (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mūrti}}'') of Shiva (literally, "Lord of Dance").<ref>For description of the nataraja form see: {{harvnb|Jansen|1993|pp=110–111}}.</ref><ref>For interpretation of the ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|naṭarāja}}'' form see: {{harvnb|Zimmer|1972|pp=151–157}}.</ref> The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.<ref>For names Nartaka (''Sanskrit'' नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=289}}.</ref> His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the [[Puranas|Puranic]] period.<ref>For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=62}}.</ref> In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|nṛtyamūrti}}'') are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular.<ref>For popularity of the ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|nṛtyamūrti}}'' and prevalence in South India, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=63}}.</ref> The two most common forms of the dance are the [[Tandava]], which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Shiva does it by the Tandava,{{sfnm|Kramrisch|1994a|1p=439|Klostermaier|1984|2p=151|2loc=''Shiva the Dancer''}} and [[Lasya]], which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati.<ref>{{cite book|last=Massey|first=Reginald |title=India's Kathak Dance, Past Present, Future|publisher=Abhinav Publications|page=8|chapter=India's Kathak Dance}}</ref><ref name="VMoorthy">{{cite book|last=Moorthy|first=Vijaya |title=Romance of the Raga|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=2001|page=96}}</ref> ''Lasya'' is regarded as the female counterpart of ''Tandava''.<ref name="VMoorthy" /> The ''Tandava''-''Lasya'' dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.<ref>{{cite book|last=Leeming|first=David Adams |title=A Dictionary of Asian Mythology|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2001|page=45}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Radha|first=Sivananda |title=Kuṇḍalinī Yoga|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|year=1992|page=304|chapter=Mantra of Muladhara Chakra}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123213949/http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2010|title=Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 1 Chapter 2 Verse 23|date=23 November 2010}}</ref> '''Kameshvara''' ([[Sanskrit]]: कामेश्वर, [[IAST]]: kāmeśvara) is a form (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mūrti}}'') of Shiva. Kameshvara is one of the supreme forms of Shiva. Kameshvara is depicted with four arms upper pair holding Pasha (noose), Ankusha (elephant goad), and the lower pair wielding arrows and bow similar to Goddess Kameshvari.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ravi |first=V |title=Understanding worshipping Sri Chakra |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |year=2013 |isbn=9781493713639 |pages=89}}</ref> [[Dakshinamurthy|Dakshinamurti]] ([[Sanskrit]] दक्षिणामूर्ति; ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}})''<ref>For iconographic description of the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} form, see: {{harvnb|Sivaramamurti|1976|p=47}}.</ref> is a form (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mūrti}}'') of Shiva (literally, "[facing] south form"). Dakshinamurti is depicted as a figure seated upon a deer-throne surrounded by sages receiving instruction.<ref>For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}}, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=155}}.</ref> This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the ''shastras''.<ref>For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=472}}.</ref> This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu.<ref>For characterization of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} as a mostly south Indian form, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=62}}.</ref> [[Bhikshatana]] ([[Sanskrit]] भिक्षाटन; ''Bhikṣāṭana'') is a form (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mūrti}}'') of Shiva (literally "wandering about for alms, mendicancy" <ref>{{cite book |last=Monier-Williams |first=Monier |title=Sanskrit-English Dictionary |publisher=Universität zu Köln |year=2008 |orig-year=1899 |page=756}}</ref>). Bhikshatana is depicted as a nude four-armed man adorned with ornaments who holds a begging bowl in his hand and is followed by demonic attendants. The nudity and begging bowl are associated with the [[Kapalika|kapali]] tradition. This form of Shiva is associated with his penance for committing brahmicide, and with his encounters with the sages and their wives in the Deodar forest. [[Tripurantaka]] ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] त्रिपुरांतक; ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Tripurāntaka}}'') is a form (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mūrti}}'') of Shiva (literally "ender of Tripura"{{sfn|Sivaramamurti|1976|pp=34, 49}}). Tripurantaka is depicted with four arms, the upper pair holding an axe and a deer, and the lower pair wielding a bow and arrow. This form of Shiva is associated with his destruction of the three cities ([[Tripura (mythology)|Tripura]]) of the [[Asura]]s.<ref>For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p. 46.</ref> [[Ardhanarishvara]] ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: अर्धनारीश्वर; ''Ardhanārīśvara'') is a form (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mūrti}}'') of Shiva (literally "the lord who is half woman"<ref>Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.</ref>). Adhanarishvara is depicted with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. [[Ardhanarishvara]] represents the synthesis of masculine and feminine energies of the universe (Purusha and Prakriti) and illustrates how [[Shakti]], the female principle of God, is inseparable from (or the same as, according to some interpretations) Shiva, the male principle of God, and vice versa.<ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Ardhanārīśvara |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/33339/Ardhanarisvara |access-date=26 January 2011 |archive-date=8 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110308210926/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/33339/Ardhanarisvara |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Kalyanasundara]]-murti (Sanskrit कल्याणसुन्दर-मूर्ति, literally "icon of beautiful marriage") is the depiction of Shiva's marriage to [[Parvati]]. The divine couple are often depicted performing the ''[[Hindu wedding#Panigrahana|panigrahana]]'' (Sanskrit "accepting the hand") ritual from traditional Hindu wedding ceremonies. [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamic]] texts like the ''Amsumadbhedagama'', the ''Uttara-kamaikagama'' and the ''Purva-Karanagama'' prescribe the iconography of the Kalyanasunadara icon.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rao, (1916). Elements of Hindu Iconography. Vol. 2: Part I. Madras: Law Printing House |first=T.A. Gopinatha |title=Elements of Hindu Iconography. Vol. 2: Part I |publisher=Law Printing House |year=1916 |location=Madras |pages=338–343}}</ref> The most basic form of this ''murti'' consists of only Shiva and Parvati together, but in more elaborate forms they are accompanied by other persons, sometimes including Parvati's parents, as well as deities (often with Vishnu and Lakshmi standing as Parvati's parents, Brahma as the officiating priest, and various other deities as attendants or guests). [[Somaskanda]] is the depiction of Shiva, Parvati, and their son Skanda ([[Kartikeya]]), popular during the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] Dynasty in southern India. [[Pañcānana]] ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: पञ्चानन), also called the ''pañcabrahma'', is a form of Shiva depicting him as having five faces which correspond to his five divine activities (''pañcakṛtya''): creation (''sṛṣṭi''), preservation (''sthithi''), destruction (''saṃhāra''), concealing grace (''tirobhāva''), and revealing grace (''anugraha''). Five is a sacred number for Shiva.<ref>For five as a sacred number, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=182}}.</ref> One of his most important mantras has five syllables ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|namaḥ śivāya}}).<ref>It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=182}}.</ref> [[File:10th century five headed Shiva Sadashiva Cambodia Metmuseum.jpg|thumb|The 10th century five headed Shiva, Sadashiva, Cambodia]] {| border="0pt" || * [[Sadyojata|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Sadyojāta}}]] * [[Vamadeva|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Vāmadeva}}]] * [[Bhairava|Aghora]] * [[Tatpuruṣa|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Tatpuruṣa}}]] * [[Ishana|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Īsāna}}]] |} Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[pañcabrahman]]}}.<ref>For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|pp=182–189}}.</ref> As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:<ref>For distinct iconography, see {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=185}}.</ref> These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.<ref>For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=182}}.</ref><ref>For the epithets ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[pañcamukha]]}}'' and ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[pañcavaktra]]}}'', both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śiva}}, see: {{harvnb|Apte|1965|p=578}}, middle column.</ref> Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.<ref>For variation in attributions among texts, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=187}}.</ref> The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch, {{blockquote|Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=184}}}} According to the ''[[Pañcabrahma Upanishad]]'': {{blockquote|One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śiva}} is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31)<ref>Quotation from ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31 is from: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=182}}.</ref>}} In the hymn of [[Manikkavacakar]]'s [[Thiruvasagam]], he testifies that at [[Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram]] had, by the pre-[[Chola]] period, an abstract or 'cosmic' symbolism linked to [[Pancha Bhoota|five elements (Pancha Bhoota)]] including ether.{{sfn|Srinivasan|2004|p=446}} Nataraja is a significant visual interpretation of [[Brahman]] and a dance posture of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book |author=James C. Harle |title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent |url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl |url-access=registration |year=1994 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300062175 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/309 309]–310}}</ref> [[Sharada Srinivasan]] notes that, [[Nataraja]] is described as [[Satcitananda]] or "Being, Consciousness and Bliss" in the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] text ''Kunchitangrim Bhaje'', resembling the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita doctrine]], or "abstract monism," of [[Adi Shankara]], "which holds the individual Self ([[Jiva|Jīvātman]]) and supream Self ([[Paramatman|Paramātmā]]) to be one," while "an earlier hymn to Nataraja by Manikkavachakar identifies him with the unitary supreme consciousness, by using Tamil word '''Or Unarve''', rather than [[Sanskrit]] '''Chit'''." This may point to an "osmosis" of ideas in [[medieval India]], states Srinivasan.{{sfn|Srinivasan|2004|pp=447}}<!-- Major other forms list needed: Other forms include [[Virabhadra]] and [[Sharabha]]. --> [[File:Shiv lingam Tripundra.jpg|thumb|232x232px|[[Lingam|Shiva Lingam]] with [[tripundra]]]] === Lingam === {{Main|Lingam}} The ''Linga Purana'' states, "Shiva is signless, without color, taste, smell, that is beyond word or touch, without quality, motionless and changeless".<ref name="Daniélou1991p222"/> The source of the universe is the signless, and all of the universe is the manifested Linga, a union of unchanging Principles and the ever changing nature.<ref name="Daniélou1991p222"/> The ''Linga Purana'' and the ''[[Ishvara Gita|Shiva Gita]]'' texts builds on this foundation.{{Sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|pp=171–185}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Anantharaman|last=K.V|title=Siva Gita A Critical Study|url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/295754|chapter=Chapter X – Omnipotence of Siva Linga|hdl=10603/295754|access-date=16 July 2021|archive-date=30 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230125037/https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/295754|url-status=live}}</ref> Linga, states [[Alain Daniélou]], means sign.<ref name="Daniélou1991p222">{{cite book|author=Alain Daniélou|title=The Myths and Gods of India |url=https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani|url-access=registration|series=Princeton Bollingen Series|year=1991|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=978-0892813544|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani/page/222 222]–224}}</ref> It is an important concept in Hindu texts, wherein Linga is a manifested sign and nature of someone or something. It accompanies the concept of [[Brahman]], which as invisible signless and existent Principle, is formless or linga-less.<ref name="Daniélou1991p222"/> The ''[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]]'' states one of the three significations, the primary one, of ''Lingam'' as "[[Purusha|the imperishable Purusha]]", [[Brahman|the absolute reality]], where says the ''linga'' as "sign", a mark that provides the existence of [[Brahman]], thus the original meaning as "sign".{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=221}} Furthermore, it says "Shiva, the Supreme Lord, has no liūga", ''liuga'' ({{lang-sa|लिऊग}} {{IAST3|liūga}}) meaning Shiva is transcendent, beyond any characteristic and, specifically the sign of gender.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=221}} Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, he is also represented in aniconic form of a lingam.{{sfnm|Michaels|2004|1p=216|Flood|1996|2p=29}}<ref>Tattwananda, pp. 49–52.</ref> These are depicted in various designs. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column in the centre of a lipped, disk-shaped object, the ''yoni'', symbolism for the goddess Shakti.<ref name=britannicalingam>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam Lingam: Hindu symbol] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011224444/https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam |date=11 October 2016 }} Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> In Shiva temples, the ''linga'' is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary offerings such as milk, water, flower petals, fruit, fresh leaves, and rice.<ref name=britannicalingam /> According to Monier Williams and Yudit Greenberg, ''linga'' literally means 'mark, sign or emblem', and also refers to a "mark or sign from which the existence of something else can be reliably inferred". It implies the regenerative divine energy innate in nature, symbolized by Shiva.<ref>Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit to English Dictionary, लिङ्ग, p. 901</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Yudit Kornberg Greenberg|title=Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nGoag6b3JvYC&pg=PA572 |year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1851099801|pages=572–573}}</ref> Some scholars, such as [[Wendy Doniger]], view ''linga'' as merely a phallic symbol,<ref>{{cite book|author=O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger|title=Śiva, the erotic ascetic|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1981|isbn=0195202503|location=Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger|title=On Hinduism|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0199360079|location=Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger|title=The Hindus: An Alternative History|publisher=Viking Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0143116691|location=United States}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rohit Dasgupta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bHytBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107|title=Cultural Encyclopedia of the Penis|date=2014|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0759123144|editor1=Michael Kimmel|page=107|editor2=Christine Milrod|editor3=Amanda Kennedy|access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=19 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019091517/https://books.google.com/books?id=bHytBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> although this interpretation is criticized by others, including [[Swami Vivekananda]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Sen|first=Amiya P.|title=The Indispensable Vivekananda|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2006|pages=25–26|chapter=Editor's Introduction}}</ref> [[Sivananda Saraswati]],<ref name="Sivananda 1996">{{cite book|last=Sivananda|first=Swami|title=Lord Siva and His Worship|publisher=The Divine Life Trust Society|year=1996|chapter=Worship of Siva Linga|chapter-url=http://www.dlshq.org/download/lordsiva.htm#_VPID_80|access-date=18 January 2009|archive-date=18 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218010322/http://www.dlshq.org/download/lordsiva.htm#_VPID_80|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Stella Kramrisch]],{{sfn|p=26|Kramrisch|1994a}} [[Swami Agehananda Bharati]],<ref name="abha70">{{cite book|title=The Tantric Tradition|author=Swami Agehananda Bharati|year=1970|isbn=0877282536|publisher=Red Wheel/Weiser|page=294}}</ref> [[S. N. Balagangadhara]],<ref name="Balagangadhara, S.N., Sarah Claerhout 118–143">{{cite journal|last1=Balagangadhara |first1=S. N. |last2=Claerhout |first2=Sarah |date=Spring 2008|title=Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two Recent Examples From Hinduism Studies|url=http://www.jsri.ro/new/?download=19_balagangadhara_claerhout.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies|volume=7|issue=19|pages=118–143|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090820023251/http://www.jsri.ro/new/?download=19_balagangadhara_claerhout.pdf|archive-date=20 August 2009|access-date=18 January 2009}}</ref> and others.<ref name="Balagangadhara, S.N., Sarah Claerhout 118–143"/><ref name="acahin">{{cite book|isbn=978-9385485015|author=Rajiv Malhotra|title=Academic Hinduphobia: A critique of Wendy Doniger's erotic school of Indology|year=2016|publisher=Voice of India}}</ref><ref name="inreinter">{{cite book|title=Invading the Sacred: An Analysis of Hinduism Studies in America|publisher=Rupa & Co.|date=2007|isbn=978-8129111821|chapter=The Hindu Goddess Reinterpreted}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://magazine.uchicago.edu/0412/features/|author=Amy M. Braverman|year=2004|publisher=University of Chicago|title=The interpretation of gods|access-date=19 July 2021|archive-date=10 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410205947/http://magazine.uchicago.edu/0412/features/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[Moriz Winternitz]], the ''linga'' in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult.<ref>{{cite book|last=Winternitz|first=Moriz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543|title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1|author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1981|isbn=978-8120802643|page=543 footnote 4|access-date=8 June 2020|archive-date=19 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019091516/https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[Sivananda Saraswati]], westerners who are curiously passionate and have impure understanding or intelligence, incorrectly assume Siva Linga as a phallus or sex organ.<ref name="Sivananda 1996"/> Later on, [[Sivananda Saraswati]] mentions that, this is not only a serious mistake, but also a grave blunder.<ref name="Sivananda 1996"/> The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the ''Atharva-Veda Samhitâ'' sung in praise of the ''Yupa-Stambha'', the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless ''[[Stambha]]'' or ''Skambha'', and it is shown that the said ''Skambha'' is put in place of the eternal [[Brahman]]. Just as the [[Yajna]] (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the ''Soma'' plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic sacrifice]] gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the ''Yupa-Skambha'' gave place in time to the ''Shiva-Linga''.<ref name="E.U.Harding">{{cite book | last = Harding | first = Elizabeth U. | title = Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar | chapter = God, the Father | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass | year = 1998 | pages = 156–157 | isbn = 978-8120814509}}</ref><ref name="paris_congress">{{cite book | last = Vivekananda | first = Swami | title = The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda | chapter = The Paris congress of the history of religions | chapter-url = http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/translation_prose/the_paris_congress.htm | volume = 4 | access-date = 17 January 2009 | archive-date = 24 February 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210224162216/http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/translation_prose/the_paris_congress.htm | url-status = live }}</ref> In the text ''Linga Purana'', the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.<ref name="paris_congress" /> The oldest known archaeological ''linga'' as an icon of Shiva is the [[Gudimallam Lingam|Gudimallam lingam]] from 3rd-century BCE.<ref name=britannicalingam /> In Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, twelve major temples of Shiva are called [[Jyotirlinga]], which means "linga of light", and these are located across India.<ref>{{cite book|author=Swati Mitra|title=Omkareshwar and Maheshwar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_0RpUoGiou4C&pg=PA25|year=2011|publisher=Eicher Goodearth and Madhya Pradesh Government|isbn=978-9380262246|page=25}}</ref> === Avatars === [[Puranas|Puranic scriptures]] contain occasional references to "ansh" – literally 'portion, or avatars of Shiva', but the idea of Shiva avatars is not universally accepted in [[Shaivism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Parrinder| first= Edward Geoffrey |title=Avatar and incarnation |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1982 |page= 88 |isbn=0195203615 }}</ref> The Linga Purana mentions twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars,<ref>{{cite book| last=Winternitz| first=Moriz| author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma| title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| year=1981| pages=543–544| isbn=978-8120802643| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543| access-date=8 June 2020| archive-date=19 October 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019091516/https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543#v=onepage&q&f=false| url-status=live}}</ref> however such mention is unusual and the avatars of Shiva is relatively rare in Shaivism compared to the well emphasized concept of Vishnu avatars in [[Vaishnavism]].<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shiva" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|0823922871}}, p. 635</ref>{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=474}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Parrinder| first= Edward Geoffrey |title=Avatar and incarnation |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1982 |pages= 87–88 |isbn=0195203615 }}</ref> Some Vaishnava literature reverentially link Shiva to characters in its Puranas. For example, in the ''[[Hanuman Chalisa]]'', [[Hanuman]] is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lutgendorf|first=Philip|title=Hanuman's tale: the messages of a divine monkey|publisher=Oxford University Press US|year=2007|page=44|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=avatara+Hanuman&pg=PT333|isbn=978-0195309218|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131656/https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=avatara+Hanuman&pg=PT333#v=snippet&q=avatara%20Hanuman&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Catherine Ludvík|title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|pages=10–11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C&q=Hanuman+Rudra&pg=PA10|isbn=978-8120811225|year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131657/https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C&q=Hanuman+Rudra&pg=PA10#v=snippet&q=Hanuman%20Rudra&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5</ref> The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' and the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' claim sage [[Durvasa]] to be a portion of Shiva.<ref name="Footnote 1 HH Wilson">{{cite web | url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp044.htm#fn_229 | title= Footnote 70:1 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I – Chapter IX | access-date= 17 July 2012 | archive-date= 9 September 2006 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060909124522/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp044.htm#fn_229 | url-status= live }}</ref><ref name="Footnote 2 HH Wilson">{{cite web | url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp045.htm#fn_243 | title= Footnote 83:4 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I – Chapter X | access-date= 17 July 2012 | archive-date= 5 August 2012 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120805200504/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp045.htm#fn_243 | url-status= live }}</ref><ref name="Bhagavata Purana 4.1">{{cite web | url= http://vedabase.net/sb/4/1/en1 | title= Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 4 Chapter 1 – English translation by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada | url-status=dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120829232539/http://vedabase.net/sb/4/1/en1 | archive-date= 29 August 2012}}</ref> Some medieval era writers have called the [[Advaita Vedanta]] philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] an incarnation of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|translator-first=Sengaku |translator-last=Mayeda |title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadesasahasri of Sankara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8fkLggRFFBwC |year=1979 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0791409435 |page=4}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! 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