Egypt Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! == History == {{Main|History of Egypt}} {{Overly detailed|section|date=September 2023}} === Prehistory and Ancient Egypt === {{Main|Prehistoric Egypt|Ancient Egypt}} [[File:Derr ( 125 miles south of Aswan, right bank). Temple dedicated to Pa - Horakhti.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|right|[[Temple of Derr]] ruins in 1960]] There is evidence of [[rock carvings]] along the [[Nile]] terraces and in desert oases. In the [[10th millennium BCE]], a culture of [[hunter-gatherer]]s and [[fishing|fishers]] was replaced by a [[cereal|grain]]-grinding [[culture]]. Climate changes or [[overgrazing]] around 8000 [[before common era|BCE]] began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the [[Sahara]]. Early [[tribal people]]s migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agricultural [[Economic system|economy]] and more centralised [[society]].<ref>Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. ''The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.</ref> By about 6000 BCE, a [[Neolithic]] culture took root in the Nile Valley.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa/nile_valley/6000-4000BC |title=The Nile Valley 6000–4000 BCE Neolithic |publisher=The British Museum |year=2005 |access-date=21 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214084636/http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa/nile_valley/6000-4000BC |archive-date=14 February 2009 }}</ref> During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in [[Upper and Lower Egypt]]. The [[Badarian]] culture and the successor [[Naqada]] series are generally regarded as precursors to [[Ancient Egypt|dynastic Egypt]]. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Egyptian hieroglyphic]] inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Shaw|editor-first=Ian|title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-19-280458-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/69 69]|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/69}}</ref> [[File:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|thumb|The [[Giza Necropolis]] is the oldest of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World|ancient Wonders]] and the only one still in existence.]] A unified kingdom was founded {{circa|3150}} BCE by King [[Menes]], leading to a [[List of Egyptian dynasties|series of dynasties]] that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. [[Culture of Egypt|Egyptian culture]] flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its [[Ancient Egyptian religion|religion]], [[Art of Ancient Egypt|arts]], [[Egyptian language|language]] and customs. The [[Protodynastic Period of Egypt|first two ruling dynasties]] of a unified Egypt set the stage for the [[Old Kingdom]] period, {{circa|2700–2200}} BCE, which constructed many [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]], most notably the [[Third dynasty of Egypt|Third Dynasty]] [[pyramid of Djoser]] and the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]] [[Giza Necropolis|Giza pyramids]]. The [[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|First Intermediate Period]] ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_01.shtml |title=The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom |publisher=BBC |date=17 February 2011 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117133705/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_01.shtml |archive-date=17 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Stronger Nile floods and stabilisation of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] {{circa|2040}} BCE, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh [[Amenemhat III]]. A [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|second period of disunity]] heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic [[Hyksos]]. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BCE and founded a new capital at [[Avaris]]. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by [[Ahmose I]], who founded the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth Dynasty]] and relocated the capital from [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] to [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]]. The [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] {{circa|1550–1070}} BCE began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an [[Power in international relations|international power]] that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as [[Tombos (Nubia)|Tombos]] in [[Nubia]], and included parts of the [[Levant]] in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well known [[Pharaoh]]s, including [[Hatshepsut]], [[Thutmose III]], [[Akhenaten]] and his wife [[Nefertiti]], [[Tutankhamun]] and [[Ramesses II]]. The first historically attested expression of [[monotheism]] came during this period as [[Atenism]]. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded and conquered by [[Ancient Libya|Libyans]], [[Kingdom of Kush|Nubians]] and [[Assyria]]ns, but native Egyptians eventually drove them out and regained control of their country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ancientsudan.org/history_06_nubconegypt.htm |title=The Kushite Conquest of Egypt |publisher=Ancientsudan.org |access-date=25 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201014554/http://www.ancientsudan.org/history_06_nubconegypt.htm |archive-date=1 February 2011}}</ref> [[File:BD Weighing of the Heart.jpg|thumb|The Weighing of the Heart from the ''[[Papyrus of Ani|Book of the Dead of Ani]]'']] In 525 BCE, the [[Achaemenid Empire]], led by [[Cambyses II of Persia|Cambyses II]], began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh [[Psamtik III]] at the battle of [[Pelusium]]. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of [[pharaoh]], but ruled Egypt from his home of [[Susa]] in Persia (modern [[Iran]]), leaving Egypt under the control of a [[satrap]]y. The entire [[Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt]], from 525 to 402 BCE, save for [[Petubastis III]], was an entirely Achaemenid-ruled period, with the Achaemenid emperors all being granted the title of pharaoh. A few temporarily successful revolts against the Achaemenids marked the fifth century BCE, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Achaemenids.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Shaw|editor-first=Ian|title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-280458-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/383 383]|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/383}}</ref> The [[Thirtieth dynasty of Egypt|Thirtieth Dynasty]] was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It [[History of Achaemenid Egypt|fell to the Achaemenids again]] in 343 BCE after the last native Pharaoh, King [[Nectanebo II]], was defeated in battle. This [[Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt]], however, did not last long, as the Achaemenids were toppled several decades later by [[Alexander the Great]]. The Macedonian Greek general of Alexander, [[Ptolemy I Soter]], founded the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Prudence J.|title=Cleopatra: A Sourcebook|url=https://archive.org/details/cleopatrasourceb0000jone|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/cleopatrasourceb0000jone/page/14 14]|location=Norman|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0806137414|quote=They were members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Macedonian Greeks, who ruled Egypt after the death of its conqueror, Alexander the Great.}}</ref> === Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt === {{Main|Ptolemaic Kingdom|Roman Egypt}} [[File:Denderah3 Cleopatra Cesarion.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|The Ptolemaic Queen [[Cleopatra VII]] and her son by Julius Caesar, [[Caesarion]], at the [[Dendera Temple complex|Temple of Dendera]]]] The [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] was a powerful [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] state, extending from southern [[Syria]] in the east, to [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] to the west, and south to the frontier with Nubia. [[Alexandria]] became the capital city and a centre of [[Hellenistic Greece|Greek]] culture and trade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves as the successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bowman |first = Alan K |title= Egypt after the Pharaohs 332 BC – AD 642 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=1996 |edition=2nd |pages=25–26 |isbn=0-520-20531-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Stanwick |first = Paul Edmond |title= Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek kings as Egyptian pharaohs |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |location=Austin |year=2003 |isbn=0-292-77772-8}}</ref> The last ruler from the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] line was [[Cleopatra VII]], who committed suicide following the burial of her lover [[Mark Antony]], after [[Octavian]] had captured Alexandria and her mercenary forces had fled. The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome. Christianity was brought to Egypt by [[Saint Mark the Evangelist]] in the 1st century.<ref name="georgetown">{{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt |title=Egypt |publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]] |access-date=14 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111220145046/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt |archive-date=20 December 2011 |url-status=dead }} See drop-down essay on "Islamic Conquest and the Ottoman Empire"</ref> [[Diocletian]]'s reign (284–305 CE) marked the transition from the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] to the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The [[New Testament]] had by then been translated into Egyptian. After the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in CE 451, a distinct [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Egyptian Coptic Church]] was firmly established.<ref>Kamil, Jill. ''Coptic Egypt: History and Guide''. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39</ref> === Middle Ages (7th century – 1517) === {{Main|Egypt in the Middle Ages}} [[File:C9B5617-Pano.jpg|thumb|The [[Mosque of Amr ibn al-As|Amr ibn al-As]] mosque in Cairo, recognised as the oldest in Africa]] The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanid Persian]] invasion early in the 7th century amidst the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]] during which they established a new short-lived province for ten years known as [[Sasanian Egypt]], until 639–42, when Egypt was invaded and [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|conquered by the Islamic caliphate]] by the [[Muslim]] Arabs. When they defeated the Byzantine armies in Egypt, the [[Arabs]] brought [[Sunni Islam|Islam]] to the country. Some time during this period, Egyptians began to blend in their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices, leading to various [[Sufism|Sufi]] orders that have flourished to this day.<ref name="georgetown" /> These earlier rites had survived the period of [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Christianity]].<ref>{{cite book|last=El-Daly|first=Okasha|title=Egyptology: The Missing Millennium|year=2005|publisher=UCL Press|location=London|page=140}}</ref> In 639 an army were sent in Egypt by the second [[caliph]], [[Umar]], under the command of [[Amr ibn al-As]]. They defeated a Roman army at the battle of Heliopolis. Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. Alexandria was regained for the Byzantine Empire in 645 but was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by [[Constans II]] was repulsed. The Arabs founded the capital of Egypt called [[Fustat]], which was later burned down during the Crusades. Cairo was later built in the year 986 to grow to become the largest and richest city in the [[Arab caliphate]], second only to [[Baghdad]]. ==== Abbasid period ==== [[File:ساحة مسجد احمد بن طولون.jpg|thumb|The [[Ibn Tulun Mosque]] in Cairo, of [[Ahmad Ibn Tulun]]]] The [[Abbasid]] period was marked by new taxations, and the Copts revolted again in the fourth year of Abbasid rule. At the beginning of the 9th century the practice of ruling Egypt through a governor was resumed under [[Abdallah ibn Tahir]], who decided to reside at [[Baghdad]], sending a deputy to Egypt to govern for him. In 828 another Egyptian revolt broke out, and in 831 the Copts joined with native Muslims against the government. Eventually the power loss of the Abbasids in Baghdad led for general upon general to take over rule of Egypt, yet being under Abbasid allegiance, the [[Tulunid dynasty]] (868–905) and [[Ikhshidid dynasty]] (935–969) were among the most successful to defy the Abbasid Caliph. ==== Fatimids, Ayyubids and Mamluks ==== [[File:مسـجد الحاكم بأمر الله 06.jpg|thumb|The [[Al-Hakim Mosque]] in Cairo, of [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]], the sixth caliph, as renovated by [[Dawoodi Bohra]] ]] Muslim rulers remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, with [[Cairo]] as the seat of the [[Fatimid Caliphate]]. With the end of the [[Ayyubid dynasty]], the [[Mamluk]]s, a [[Turkic people|Turco]]-[[Circassians|Circassian]] military caste, took control about 1250. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked the Red Sea, India, Malaya, and East Indies.<ref name="Abu-Lughod">{{cite book|last=Abu-Lughod|first=Janet L.|author-link=Janet Abu-Lughod|title=Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1991|orig-year=1989|pages=[https://archive.org/details/beforeeuropeanhe00abul_1/page/243 243–244]|isbn=978-0-19-506774-3|chapter=The Mideast Heartland|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rYlgGU2SLiQC&pg=PA244|url=https://archive.org/details/beforeeuropeanhe00abul_1/page/243}}</ref> The mid-14th-century [[Black Death]] killed about 40% of the country's population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/egypt/57.htm |title=Egypt – Major Cities |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117011718/http://countrystudies.us/egypt/57.htm |archive-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Early modern period: Ottoman Egypt (1517–1867) === {{Main|Egypt Eyalet}} [[File:Louis-François Baron Lejeune 001.jpg|thumb|Napoleon defeated the [[Mamluk]] troops in the [[Battle of the Pyramids]], 21 July 1798, painted by [[Louis-François, Baron Lejeune|Lejeune]].]] Egypt was conquered by the [[Ottoman Turks]] in 1517, after which it became a province of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The defensive militarisation damaged its civil society and economic institutions.<ref name="Abu-Lughod" /> The weakening of the economic system combined with the effects of plague left Egypt vulnerable to foreign invasion. Portuguese traders took over their trade.<ref name="Abu-Lughod" /> Between 1687 and 1731, Egypt experienced six famines.<ref>{{cite book|author=Donald Quataert|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1jR39OM_hsC&pg=PA115|access-date=21 June 2013|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-44591-7|page=115|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213015351/http://books.google.com/books?id=T1jR39OM_hsC&pg=PA115|archive-date=13 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> The 1784 [[famine]] cost it roughly one-sixth of its population.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061121232204.htm |title=Icelandic Volcano Caused Historic Famine In Egypt, Study Shows |website=ScienceDaily |date=22 November 2006 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117013900/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061121232204.htm |archive-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Egypt was always a difficult province for the Ottoman [[Sultans]] to control, due in part to the continuing power and influence of the [[Mamluks]], the Egyptian military caste who had ruled the country for centuries. Egypt remained semi-autonomous under the [[Mamluks]] until it was [[French campaign in Egypt and Syria|invaded]] by the [[First French Republic|French]] forces of [[Napoleon]] Bonaparte in 1798. After the French were defeated by the British, a three-way power struggle ensued between the [[Ottoman Turks]], Egyptian [[Mamluk]]s who had ruled Egypt for centuries, and [[Arnauts|Albanian mercenaries]] in the service of the Ottomans. ==== Muhammad Ali dynasty ==== {{Main|History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty}} [[File:Egypt under Muhammad Ali Dynasty map en.png|thumb|Egypt under Muhammad Ali dynasty]] [[File:ModernEgypt, Muhammad Ali by Auguste Couder, BAP 17996.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] was the founder of the [[Muhammad Ali dynasty]] and the first [[Khedive]] of Egypt and [[Sudan]].]] After the French were expelled, power was seized in 1805 by [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]], an [[Albanians in Egypt|Albanian]] military commander of the Ottoman army in Egypt. Muhammad Ali [[Muhammad Ali's seizure of power|massacred]] the Mamluks and established a [[Muhammad Ali dynasty|dynasty]] that was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952. The introduction in 1820 of long-staple [[cotton]] transformed its agriculture into a cash-crop [[monoculture]] before the end of the century, concentrating land ownership and shifting production towards international markets.<ref name="Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin 1973, p 2">{{cite book|title=Nasser of the Arabs: an Arab assessment|last=Izzeddin|first=Nejla M. Abu|publisher=Third World Centre for Research and Publishing|year=1981|isbn=978-0-86199-012-2|page=2}}</ref> Muhammad Ali annexed [[Northern Sudan]] (1820–1824), [[Syria]] (1833), and parts of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] and [[Anatolia]]; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple the Ottoman Empire itself, forced him to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans. His military ambition required him to modernise the country: he built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the [[civil service]].<ref name="Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin 1973, p 2" /> He constructed a military state with around four percent of the populace serving the army to raise Egypt to a powerful positioning in the Ottoman Empire in a way showing various similarities to the Soviet strategies (without communism) conducted in the 20th century.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=217|isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref> Muhammad Ali Pasha evolved the military from one that convened under the tradition of the [[corvée]] to a great modernised army. He introduced conscription of the male peasantry in 19th century Egypt, and took a novel approach to create his great army, strengthening it with numbers and in skill. Education and training of the new soldiers became mandatory; the new concepts were furthermore enforced by isolation. The men were held in barracks to avoid distraction of their growth as a military unit to be reckoned with. The resentment for the military way of life eventually faded from the men and a new ideology took hold, one of nationalism and pride. It was with the help of this newly reborn martial unit that Muhammad Ali imposed his rule over Egypt.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fahmy |first=Khaled |title=All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, his army and the making of modern Egypt |series=Cambridge Middle East Studies |volume=8 |year=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56007-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IlQsbY3REP4C |pages=119–147}}</ref> The policy that Mohammad Ali Pasha followed during his reign explains partly why the numeracy in Egypt compared to other North-African and Middle-Eastern countries increased only at a remarkably small rate, as investment in further education only took place in the military and industrial sector.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=220, Figure 7.4 "Numeracy in selected Middle Eastern countries", based on Prayon and Baten (2013)|isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref> Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim]] (in September 1848), then by a grandson [[Abbas I of Egypt|Abbas I]] (in November 1848), then by [[Sa'id of Egypt|Said]] (in 1854), and [[Isma'il Pasha|Isma'il]] (in 1863) who encouraged science and agriculture and banned slavery in Egypt.<ref name="auto" /> === Khedivate of Egypt (1867–1914) === {{Main|Khedivate of Egypt}} [[History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty|Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty]] remained nominally an Ottoman province. It was granted the status of an [[Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire|autonomous vassal state]] or ''[[Khedivate of Egypt|Khedivate]]'' in 1867. The [[Suez Canal]], built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. Its construction was financed by European banks. Large sums also went to patronage and corruption. New taxes caused popular discontent. In 1875 Isma'il avoided bankruptcy by selling all Egypt's shares in the canal to the British government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French [[Dual control (politics)|controllers]] who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government."<ref>Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, ''Nasser of the Arabs'', p. 2.</ref> Other circumstances like epidemic diseases (cattle disease in the 1880s), floods and wars drove the economic downturn and increased Egypt's dependency on foreign debt even further.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=217, 224 Figure 7.6: "Height development in the Middle East and the world (male)" and 225|isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref> [[File:Tel-el-Kebir.JPG|thumb|right|The [[battle of Tel el-Kebir]] in 1882 during the [[Anglo-Egyptian War]]]] Local dissatisfaction with the Khedive and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with [[Ahmed ʻUrabi]] a prominent figure. After increasing tensions and nationalist revolts, the United Kingdom invaded Egypt in 1882, crushing the Egyptian army at the [[Battle of Tell El Kebir]] and militarily occupying the country.<ref>Anglo French motivation: Derek Hopwood, ''Egypt: Politics and Society 1945–1981''. London, 1982, George Allen & Unwin. p. 11.</ref> Following this, the Khedivate became a ''de facto'' British protectorate under nominal Ottoman sovereignty.<ref>De facto protectorate: Joan Wucher King, ''Historical Dictionary of Egypt''. Metuchen, NJ; 1984; Scarecrow. p. 17.</ref> In 1899 the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement was signed: the Agreement stated that Sudan would be jointly governed by the Khedivate of Egypt and the United Kingdom. However, actual control of Sudan was in British hands only. In 1906, the [[Denshawai incident]] prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement. === Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922) === {{Main|Sultanate of Egypt}} [[File:Cairo-Demonstrations1919.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.75|Female nationalists demonstrating in [[Cairo]], 1919]] In 1914 the [[Ottoman Empire]] entered World War I in alliance with the Central Empires; Khedive [[Abbas II of Egypt|Abbas II]] (who had grown increasingly hostile to the British in preceding years) decided to support the motherland in war. Following such decision, the British forcibly removed him from power and replaced him with his brother [[Hussein Kamel of Egypt|Hussein Kamel]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Jankowski|first=James|title=Egypt, A Short History|page=111}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne|title=Treaty of Lausanne – World War I Document Archive|website=wwi.lib.byu.edu|access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref> Hussein Kamel declared Egypt's independence from the Ottoman Empire, assuming the title of [[Sultanate of Egypt|Sultan of Egypt]]. Shortly following independence, Egypt was declared a protectorate of the United Kingdom. After [[World War I]], [[Saad Zaghlul]] and the [[Wafd Party]] led the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local [[Legislative Assembly]]. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to [[Malta]] on 8 March 1919, the country arose in its [[Egyptian revolution of 1919|first modern revolution]]. The revolt led the [[United Kingdom coalition government (1916–1922)|UK government]] to issue a [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence|unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence]] on 22 February 1922.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jankowski|first=James|title=Egypt, A Short History|page=112}}</ref> === Kingdom of Egypt (1922–1953) === {{Main|Kingdom of Egypt}} [[File:Fuad I of Egypt, Edward VIII, & Mohamed Sa'id Paşa.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[Fuad I of Egypt]] with [[Edward VIII|Edward, Prince of Wales]], 1932]] Following independence from the United Kingdom, Sultan [[Fuad I of Egypt|Fuad I]] assumed the title of [[Kingdom of Egypt|King of Egypt]]; despite being nominally independent, the Kingdom was still under British military occupation and the UK still had great influence over the state.[[File:1stAlameinBritDefense.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.75|British infantry near [[First Battle of El Alamein|El Alamein]], 17 July 1942]] The [[Kingdom of Egypt|new government]] drafted and implemented a [[1923 Constitution of Egypt|constitution]] in 1923 based on a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] system. The nationalist Wafd Party won a landslide victory in the [[1923–24 Egyptian parliamentary election|1923–1924 election]] and [[Saad Zaghloul]] was appointed as the new Prime Minister. In 1936, the [[Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936|Anglo-Egyptian Treaty]] was concluded and British troops withdrew from Egypt, except for the Suez Canal. The treaty did not resolve the question of [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Sudan]], which, under the terms of the existing Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899, stated that Sudan should be jointly governed by Egypt and Britain, but with real power remaining in British hands.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-zpShVWIxwIC&q=%22Anglo-Egyptian+Condominium+Agreement%22+%221899%22&pg=PA33|title=A History of Modern Sudan|last1=Collins|first1=Robert O.|last2=Collins|first2=Professor of History Robert O.|date=29 May 2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85820-5|language=en}}</ref> Britain used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the region, especially the battles in North Africa against Italy and Germany. Its highest priorities were control of the Eastern Mediterranean, and especially keeping the Suez Canal open for merchant ships and for military connections with India and Australia. When the war began in September 1939, Egypt declared martial law and broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. It broke diplomatic relations with Italy in 1940, but never declared war, even when the Italian army invaded Egypt. The Egyptian army did no fighting. In June 1940 the King dismissed Prime Minister Aly Maher, who got on poorly with the British. A new coalition Government was formed with the Independent Hassan Pasha Sabri as Prime Minister. Following a ministerial crisis in February 1942, the ambassador Sir [[Miles Lampson, 1st Baron Killearn|Miles Lampson]], pressed Farouk to have a [[Wafd Party|Wafd]] or Wafd-coalition government replace [[Hussein Sirri Pasha]]'s government. On the night of 4 February 1942, [[Abdeen Palace Incident of 1942|British troops and tanks surrounded Abdeen Palace in Cairo and Lampson presented Farouk with an ultimatum]]. Farouk capitulated, and Nahhas formed a government shortly thereafter. Most British troops were withdrawn to the Suez Canal area in 1947 (although the British army maintained a military base in the area), but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the War. Anti-monarchy sentiments further increased following the disastrous performance of the Kingdom in the [[First Arab-Israeli War]]. The 1950 election saw a landslide victory of the nationalist [[Wafd Party]] and the King was forced to appoint [[Mostafa El-Nahas]] as new Prime Minister. In 1951 Egypt unilaterally withdrew from the [[Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936|Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936]] and ordered all remaining British troops to leave the Suez Canal. As the British refused to leave their base around the Suez Canal, the Egyptian government cut off the water and refused to allow food into the Suez Canal base, announced a boycott of British goods, forbade Egyptian workers from entering the base and sponsored guerrilla attacks. On 24 January 1952, Egyptian guerrillas staged a fierce attack on the British forces around the Suez Canal, during which the Egyptian Auxiliary Police were observed helping the guerrillas. In response, on 25 January, General [[George Erskine]] sent out British tanks and infantry to surround the auxiliary police station in Ismailia. The police commander called the Interior Minister, [[Fouad Serageddin]], Nahas's right-hand man, to ask if he should surrender or fight. Serageddin ordered the police to fight "to the last man and the last bullet". The resulting battle saw the police station levelled and 43 Egyptian policemen killed together with 3 British soldiers. The Ismailia incident outraged Egypt. The next day, 26 January 1952 was [[Cairo fire|"Black Saturday"]], as the anti-British riot was known, that saw much of downtown Cairo which the Khedive Ismail the Magnificent had rebuilt in the style of Paris, burned down. Farouk blamed the Wafd for the Black Saturday riot, and dismissed Nahas as prime minister the next day. He was replaced by [[Aly Maher Pasha]].<ref name="factbook">{{cite web|title=Egypt |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/|work=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA|access-date=2 February 2011}}</ref> On 22–23 July 1952, the [[Free Officers Movement (Egypt)|Free Officers Movement]], led by [[Muhammad Naguib]] and [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], launched a coup d'état ([[Egyptian Revolution of 1952]]) against the king. Farouk I abdicated the throne to his son [[Fuad II of Egypt|Fouad II]], who was, at the time, a seven-month-old baby. The Royal Family left Egypt some days later and the Council of Regency, led by [[Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim]] was formed, The council, however, held only nominal authority and the real power was actually in the hands of the [[Egyptian Revolutionary Command Council|Revolutionary Command Council]], led by Naguib and Nasser. Popular expectations for immediate reforms led to the workers' riots in [[Kafr Dawar]] on 12 August 1952. Following a brief experiment with civilian rule, the Free Officers abrogated the monarchy and the 1923 constitution and declared Egypt a republic on 18 June 1953. Naguib was proclaimed as president, while Nasser was appointed as the new Prime Minister. === Republic of Egypt (1953–1958) === {{Main|History of republican Egypt}} Following the [[Egyptian revolution of 1952|1952 Revolution]] by the [[Free Officers Movement (Egypt)|Free Officers Movement]], the rule of Egypt passed to military hands and all political parties were banned. On 18 June 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared, with General [[Muhammad Naguib]] as the first President of the Republic, serving in that capacity for a little under one and a half years. ==== President Nasser (1956–1970) ==== [[File:Nasser in Mansoura, 1960.jpg|thumb|right|Egyptian President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] in Mansoura, 1960]] Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]]{{spaced ndash}}a [[Pan-Arabist]] and the real architect of the 1952 movement{{spaced ndash}}and was later put under [[house arrest]]. After Naguib's resignation, the position of President was vacant until the election of Nasser in 1956.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://modernegypt.bibalex.org/Types/Persons/Details.aspx?type=ruler&ID=ieiMjZc32OCIOCRsXII4PA==|title=ذاكرة مصر المعاصر – السيرة الذاتية|website=modernegypt.bibalex.org|access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref> In October 1954, Egypt and the United Kingdom agreed to abolish the [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement]] of 1899 and grant Sudan independence; the agreement came into force on 1 January 1956. Nasser assumed [[Political power|power]] as president in June 1956. British forces completed their withdrawal from the occupied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. He [[nationalised]] the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956; his hostile approach towards Israel and economic nationalism prompted the beginning of the [[Second Arab-Israeli War]] (Suez Crisis), in which Israel (with support from France and the United Kingdom) occupied the Sinai peninsula and the Canal. The war came to an end because of US and USSR diplomatic intervention and the ''status quo'' was restored. === United Arab Republic (1958–1971) === [[File:Port Said from air.jpg|thumb|Smoke rises from oil tanks beside the [[Suez Canal]] hit during the initial [[Suez Crisis|Anglo-French assault]] on Egypt, 5 November 1956.]] In 1958, Egypt and [[Syria]] formed a sovereign union known as the [[United Arab Republic]]. The union was short-lived, ending in 1961 when [[Syria]] seceded, thus ending the union. During most of its existence, the United Arab Republic was also in a loose [[confederation]] with [[Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen|North Yemen]] (or the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen), known as the [[United Arab States]]. In the early 1960s, Egypt became fully involved in the [[North Yemen Civil War]]. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Orkaby |first=Asher Aviad. |date=2014 |title=The International History of the Yemen Civil War, 1962-1968 |url=https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/12269828/Orkaby_gsas.harvard_0084L_11420.pdf?sequence= |journal=Doctoral Dissertation, Harvard University}}</ref> In mid May 1967, the Soviet Union issued warnings to [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]] of an impending Israeli attack on Syria. Although the chief of staff [[Mohamed Fawzi (general)|Mohamed Fawzi]] verified them as "baseless",<ref>{{cite book |last=Aburish |first=Said K. |author-link=Said Aburish |title=Nasser, the Last Arab |year=2004 |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |location=New York City |isbn=978-0-312-28683-5 |page=252 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780312286835 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kandil |first=Hazem |title=Soldiers, Spies and Statesmen: Egypt's Road to Revolt |year=2012 |publisher=[[Verso Books]]|location=Brooklyn |isbn=978-1-84467-962-1 |page=76}}</ref> Nasser took three successive steps that made the war virtually inevitable: on 14 May he deployed his troops in Sinai near the border with Israel, on 19 May he expelled the UN peacekeepers stationed in the Sinai Peninsula border with Israel, and on 23 May he closed the [[Straits of Tiran]] to Israeli shipping.<ref>Shlaim, Rogan, 2012 pp. 7, 106</ref> On 26 May [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]] declared, "The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel".<ref>{{cite book|author=Samir A. Mutawi|title=Jordan in the 1967 War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9bBJusRJIMC&pg=PA94|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52858-0|page=95|access-date=20 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906091253/https://books.google.com/books?id=g9bBJusRJIMC&pg=PA94|archive-date=6 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> This prompted the beginning of the [[Third Arab-Israeli War|Third Arab Israeli War]] (Six-Day War) in which Israel attacked Egypt, and occupied [[Sinai Peninsula]] and the [[Gaza Strip]], which Egypt had [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt|occupied]] since the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]]. During the 1967 war, an [[Emergency law in Egypt|Emergency Law]] was enacted, and remained in effect until 2012, with the exception of an 18-month break in 1980/81.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Emergency Law in Egypt|url=http://www.fidh.org/THE-EMERGENCY-LAW-IN-EGYPT|work=International Federation for Human Rights|access-date=2 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201210318/http://fidh.org/THE-EMERGENCY-LAW-IN-EGYPT|archive-date=1 February 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> Under this law, police powers were extended, constitutional rights suspended and censorship legalised.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Egypt – Emergency Law No. 162/1958. |url=https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=111245 |access-date=2022-05-07 |website=www.ilo.org}}</ref> At the time of the fall of the Egyptian monarchy in the early 1950s, less than half a million Egyptians were considered upper class and rich, four million middle class and 17 million lower class and poor.<ref name="Tarek Osman 2010, p. 120">''Egypt on the Brink'' by Tarek Osman, Yale University Press, 2010, p. 120</ref> Fewer than half of all primary-school-age children attended school, most of them being boys. Nasser's policies changed this. Land reform and distribution, the dramatic growth in university education, and government support to national industries greatly improved social mobility and flattened the social curve. From academic year 1953–54 through 1965–66, overall public school enrolments more than doubled. Millions of previously poor Egyptians, through education and jobs in the public sector, joined the middle class. Doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, journalists, constituted the bulk of the swelling middle class in Egypt under Nasser.<ref name="Tarek Osman 2010, p. 120" /> During the 1960s, the Egyptian economy went from sluggish to the verge of collapse, the society became less free, and Nasser's appeal waned considerably.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jesse Ferris|title=Nasser's Gamble: How Intervention in Yemen Caused the Six-Day War and the Decline of Egyptian Power|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UC4_aVRh7MgC&pg=PA172|year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-15514-2|page=2|access-date=20 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906085333/https://books.google.com/books?id=UC4_aVRh7MgC&pg=PA172|archive-date=6 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> === Arab Republic of Egypt (1971–present) === ==== President Sadat (1970–1981) ==== [[File:Egyptian Armor.jpg|thumb|Egyptian tanks advancing in the Sinai desert during the [[Yom Kippur War]], 1973]] In 1970, President Nasser died and was succeeded by [[Anwar Sadat]]. Sadat switched Egypt's [[Cold War]] allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched the [[Infitah]] economic reform policy, while clamping down on religious and secular opposition. In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the [[Fourth Arab-Israeli War]] (Yom Kippur War), a surprise attack to regain part of the Sinai territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. [[File:Begin, Carter and Sadat at Camp David 1978.jpg|thumb|Celebrating the signing of the 1978 [[Camp David Accords]]: [[Menachem Begin]], [[Jimmy Carter]], [[Anwar Sadat]]]] In 1975, Sadat shifted Nasser's economic policies and sought to use his popularity to reduce government regulations and encourage foreign investment through his programme of Infitah. Through this policy, incentives such as reduced taxes and import tariffs attracted some investors, but investments were mainly directed at low risk and profitable ventures like tourism and construction, abandoning Egypt's infant industries.<ref>Amin, Galal. ''Egypt's Economic Predicament: A Study in the Interaction of External Pressure, Political Folly, and Social Tension in Egypt, 1960–1990'', 1995</ref> Because of the elimination of subsidies on basic foodstuffs, it led to the [[1977 Egyptian Bread Riots]]. Sadat made a [[Anwar Sadat's visit to Israel, 1977|historic visit to Israel in 1977]], which led to the 1979 [[Egypt–Israel peace treaty|Egypt-Israel peace treaty]] in exchange for Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. In return, Egypt recognised Israel as a legitimate sovereign state. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the [[Arab world]] and led to Egypt's expulsion from the [[Arab League]], but it was supported by most Egyptians.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vatikiotis|first=P.J.|title=The History of Modern Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Mubarak|year=1991|publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson|location=London|isbn=978-0-297-82034-5|page=443|edition=4.}}</ref> [[Assassination of Anwar Sadat|Sadat was assassinated]] by an Islamic extremist in October 1981. ==== President Mubarak (1981–2011) ==== [[File:Hosni Mubarak 2003.jpg|left|thumb|[[Hosni Mubarak]] was the president of Egypt from 1981 until his overthrew in 2011]] [[Hosni Mubarak]] came to power after the assassination of Sadat in a referendum in which he was the only candidate.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news |last=Cambanis |first=Thanassis |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |title=Succession Gives Army a Stiff Test in Egypt |location=Egypt |work=The New York Times |date=11 September 2010 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027041857/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |archive-date=27 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hosni Mubarak reaffirmed Egypt's relationship with Israel yet eased the tensions with Egypt's Arab neighbours. Domestically, Mubarak faced serious problems. Mass poverty and unemployment led rural families to stream into cities like Cairo where they ended up in crowded slums, barely managing to survive. On [[1986 Egyptian conscripts riot|25 February 1986]], the Security Police started rioting, protesting against reports that their term of duty was to be extended from 3 to 4 years. Hotels, nightclubs, restaurants and casinos were attacked in Cairo and there were riots in other cities. A day time curfew was imposed. It took the army 3 days to restore order. 107 people were killed.<ref>Middle East International No 270, 7 March 1986, Publishers [[Christopher Mayhew|Lord Mayhew]], [[Dennis Walters]]. Simon Ingram p. 8, [[Per Gahrton]] p.20</ref> [[File:Cairo north.JPG|thumb|[[Cairo]] grew into a [[metropolitan area]] with a population of over 20 million.]] In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became numerous and severe, and began to target Christian [[Copt]]s, foreign tourists and government officials.<ref>Murphy, Caryle ''Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience'', Scribner, 2002, p. 4</ref> In the 1990s an [[Islamist]] group, [[Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya]], engaged in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economy—tourism<ref>"Solidly ahead of oil, Suez Canal revenues, and remittances, tourism is Egypt's main hard currency earner at $6.5 billion per year." (in 2005) [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/741/eg1.htm ... concerns over tourism's future] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924131816/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/741/eg1.htm |date=24 September 2013}}. Retrieved 27 September 2007.</ref>—and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depended for support.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kepel |first1=Gilles |author-link=Gilles Kepel |title=Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam |date=2002 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01090-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tttzgNKFAI8C |language=en |page={{page needed|date=February 2023}}}}</ref> During Mubarak's reign, the political scene was dominated by the [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]], which was created by Sadat in 1978. It passed the 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 Nongovernmental Associations Law which hampered freedoms of association and expression by imposing new regulations and draconian penalties on violations.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Evaluating Egyptian REfoRm |url=http://research.policyarchive.org/6458.pdf |journal=Carnegie P a P e R S}}</ref> As a result, by the late 1990s parliamentary politics had become virtually irrelevant and alternative avenues for political expression were curtailed as well.<ref>Dunne, Michele (January 2006). "Evaluating Egyptian Reform". Carnegie Papers: Middle East Series (66): 4.</ref> On 17 November 1997, [[Luxor massacre|62 people, mostly tourists, were massacred]] near [[Luxor]]. In late February 2005, Mubarak announced a reform of the presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls for the first time since the [[Free Officers Movement (Egypt)|1952 movement]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4565 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050310152506/http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4565 |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 March 2005 |title=Mubarak throws presidential race wide open |publisher=Business Today Egypt |date=10 March 2005 |access-date=8 February 2013 }}</ref> However, the new law placed restrictions on the candidates, and led to Mubarak's easy re-election victory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/012/034kggwf.asp |title=Democracy on the Nile: The story of Ayman Nour and Egypt's problematic attempt at free elections |publisher=Weeklystandard.com |date=27 March 2006 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107135218/http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/012/034kggwf.asp |archive-date=7 January 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Voter turnout was less than 25%.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/gate/archive/2005/09/13/worldviews.DTL |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050915045155/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fgate%2Farchive%2F2005%2F09%2F13%2Fworldviews.DTL |archive-date=15 September 2005 |title=Hosni Mubarak's pretend democratic election |last=Gomez |first=Edward M |newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle |date=12 September 2005 |access-date=8 February 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Election observers also alleged government interference in the election process.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0526/p06s01-wome.html |title=Egyptian vote marred by violence |newspaper=Christian Science Monitor |date=26 May 2005 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208095738/http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0526/p06s01-wome.html |archive-date=8 February 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> After the election, Mubarak imprisoned [[Ayman Nour]], the runner-up.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2005/December/20051224115656retnuhategdirb0.6396906.html |title=United States "Deeply Troubled" by Sentencing of Egypt's Nour |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=24 December 2005 |access-date=8 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021051128/http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2005/December/20051224115656retnuhategdirb0.6396906.html |archive-date=21 October 2011 }}</ref> Human Rights Watch's 2006 report on Egypt detailed serious human rights violations, including routine [[torture]], arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.<ref name="HRW">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm |title=Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt |chapter=Egypt: Events of 2005 |date=5 January 2006 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081114115428/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm |archive-date=14 November 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2007, [[Amnesty International]] released a report alleging that Egypt had become an international centre for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the [[War on Terror]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6544149.stm |title=Egypt torture centre, report says |work=BBC News |date=11 April 2007 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111126031108/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6544149.stm |archive-date=26 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6551401.stm |title=Egypt rejects torture criticism |work=BBC News |date=13 April 2007 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331143516/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6551401.stm |archive-date=31 March 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Constitutional changes voted on 19 March 2007 prohibited parties from using religion as a basis for political activity, allowed the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law, authorised broad police powers of arrest and surveillance, and gave the president power to dissolve parliament and end judicial election monitoring.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6472031.stm |title=Anger over Egypt vote timetable |work=BBC News |date=20 March 2007 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129222423/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6472031.stm |archive-date=29 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2009, Dr. Ali El Deen Hilal Dessouki, Media Secretary of the National Democratic Party ([[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|NDP]]), described Egypt as a "[[pharaonic]]" political system, and democracy as a "long-term goal". Dessouki also stated that "the real center of power in Egypt is the military".{{citation needed|date=November 2023}} ==== Revolution (2011) ==== {{Main|2011 Egyptian revolution}} {{multiple image | width = 200 | direction = vertical | footer = '''Top''': celebrations in Tahrir Square after the announcement of Hosni Mubarak's resignation.<br/>'''Bottom''': protests in Tahrir Square against President [[Mohamed Morsi|Morsi]] on 27 November 2012. | image1 = Tahrir Square on February11.png | image2 = TahrirSquareAgainstMorsi.jpg }} On 25 January 2011, [[2011 Egyptian revolution|widespread protests]] began against Mubarak's government. On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo. Jubilant celebrations broke out in Cairo's [[Tahrir Square]] at the news.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/11/mubarak-red-sea-egypt_n_821812.html |title=Mubarak Resigns As Egypt's President, Armed Forces To Take Control |work=Huffington Post |date=11 February 2011 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130322095317/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/11/mubarak-red-sea-egypt_n_821812.html |archive-date=22 March 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Egyptian military]] then assumed the power to govern.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |title=Mubarak Steps Down, Ceding Power to Military |work=The New York Times |date=11 February 2010 |access-date=11 February 2011 |first=David D. |last=Kirkpatrick |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211081712/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |archive-date=11 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12433045 |title=Egypt crisis: President Hosni Mubarak resigns as leader |publisher=BBC |date=11 February 2010 |access-date=11 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211192204/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12433045 |archive-date=11 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Mohamed Hussein Tantawi]], chairman of the [[Supreme Council of the Armed Forces]], became the ''de facto'' interim [[head of state]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Christopher |last2=Swinford |first2=Steven |date=15 February 2011 |title=WikiLeaks: Egypt's new man at the top 'was against reform' |journal=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |access-date=5 March 2011 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8326225/WikiLeaks-Egypts-new-man-at-the-top-was-against-reform.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310105211/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8326225/WikiLeaks-Egypts-new-man-at-the-top-was-against-reform.html |archive-date=10 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Story.aspx?sid=53709 |title=The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces: Constitutional Proclamation |date=13 February 2011 |publisher=Egypt State Information Service |access-date=5 March 2011 |quote=The Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces shall represent it internally and externally. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427082524/http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Story.aspx?sid=53709 |archive-date=27 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 13 February 2011, the military dissolved the parliament and suspended the constitution.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12443678|title=Egyptian Parliament dissolved, constitution suspended|publisher=BBC|date=13 February 2011|access-date=13 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110214045727/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12443678|archive-date=14 February 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> A [[Egyptian constitutional referendum, 2011|constitutional referendum]] was held on 19 March 2011.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Harris |first1=Marty |title=The Egyptian constitutional referendum of March 2011 a new beginning |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/FlagPost/2011/March/The_Egyptian_constitutional_referendum_of_March_2011_a_new_beginning |website=www.aph.gov.au |language=en-AU}}</ref> On 28 November 2011, Egypt held its [[2011–12 Egyptian parliamentary election|first parliamentary election]] since the previous regime had been in power. Turnout was high and there were no reports of major irregularities or violence.<ref>{{cite news |last=Memmott |first=Mark |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/11/28/142840895/egypts-historic-day-begins-peacefully-turnout-high-for-elections |title=Egypt's Historic Day Proceeds Peacefully, Turnout High For Elections |newspaper=NPR |publisher=Npr.org |date=28 November 2011 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202183307/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/11/28/142840895/egypts-historic-day-begins-peacefully-turnout-high-for-elections |archive-date=2 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== President Morsi (2012–2013) ==== [[Mohamed Morsi]] was [[2012 Egyptian presidential election|elected president]] on 24 June 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt's new president moves into his offices, begins choosing a Cabinet|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/25/world/africa/egypt-politics|publisher=CNN|access-date=13 February 2013|date=25 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512224527/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/25/world/africa/egypt-politics/|archive-date=12 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> On 30 June 2012, Mohamed Morsi was sworn in as Egypt's president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mohamed Morsi sworn in as Egypt's president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2012/7/1/mohamed-morsi-sworn-in-as-egypts-president |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> On 2 August 2012, Egypt's Prime Minister [[Hisham Qandil]] announced his 35-member cabinet comprising 28 newcomers, including four from the Muslim Brotherhood.<ref>{{cite news|title= Egypt unveils new cabinet, Tantawi keeps defence post |date= 3 August 2012}}</ref> Liberal and secular groups walked out of the [[Constituent Assembly of Egypt|constituent assembly]] because they believed that it would impose strict Islamic practices, while Muslim Brotherhood backers threw their support behind Morsi.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/rallies-against-egypt-presidents-powers-104941461.html |title=Rallies for, against Egypt president's new powers |agency=Associated Press |date=23 November 2012 |access-date=23 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129033632/http://news.yahoo.com/rallies-against-egypt-presidents-powers-104941461.html |archive-date=29 November 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 22 November 2012, President Morsi issued a temporary declaration immunising his decrees from challenge and seeking to protect the work of the constituent assembly.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20451208 |title=Egypt's President Mursi assumes sweeping powers |work=BBC News |date=22 November 2012 |access-date=23 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122182256/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20451208 |archive-date=22 November 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> The move led to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/9699801/Violence-breaks-out-across-Egypt-as-protesters-decry-Mohammed-Morsis-constitutional-coup.html|first=Richard|last=Spencer|date=23 November 2012|access-date=23 November 2012|title=Violence breaks out across Egypt as protesters decry Mohammed Morsi's constitutional 'coup'|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121127191821/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/9699801/Violence-breaks-out-across-Egypt-as-protesters-decry-Mohammed-Morsis-constitutional-coup.html|archive-date=27 November 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> On 5 December 2012, tens of thousands of supporters and opponents of President Morsi clashed, in what was described as the largest violent battle between Islamists and their foes since the country's revolution.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324640104578160902530961768 |title=Egypt Sees Largest Clash Since Revolution |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |date=6 December 2012 |access-date=8 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421184804/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324640104578160902530961768 |archive-date=21 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mohamed Morsi offered a "national dialogue" with opposition leaders but refused to cancel the [[Egyptian constitutional referendum, 2012|December 2012 constitutional referendum]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-morsi-20121207,0,2119116.story|title=Morsi refuses to cancel Egypt's vote on constitution|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=6 December 2012|access-date=8 December 2012|first=Jeffrey|last=Fleishman|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208041127/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-morsi-20121207,0,2119116.story|archive-date=8 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Political crisis (2013) ==== {{Main|2013 Egyptian coup d'état}} On 3 July 2013, [[June 2013 Egyptian protests|after a wave of public discontent]] with autocratic excesses of Morsi's [[Muslim Brotherhood]] government,<ref name="morsi-think-again">{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/01/28/think-again-the-muslim-brotherhood/|title=Think Again: The Muslim Brotherhood|publisher=Al-Monitor|date=28 January 2013|access-date=7 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202110236/http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/01/28/think-again-the-muslim-brotherhood/|archive-date=2 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> the military [[2013 Egyptian coup d'état|removed]] Morsi from office, dissolved the Shura Council and installed a temporary interim government.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/04/world/middleeast/egypt.html|title=Army Ousts Egypt's President; Morsi Denounces 'Military Coup'|work=The New York Times|date=3 July 2013|access-date=3 July 2013|first=David D.|last=Kirkpatrick|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130704010457/http://www.nytimes.com//2013//07//04//world//middleeast//egypt.html|archive-date=4 July 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> On 4 July 2013, 68-year-old Chief Justice of the [[Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt]] [[Adly Mansour]] was sworn in as acting president over the new government following the removal of Morsi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Holpuch |first1=Amanda |last2=Siddique |first2=Haroon |last3=Weaver |first3=Matthew |title=Egypt's interim president sworn in - Thursday 4 July |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/04/egypt-revolution-new-president-live-updates |work=The Guardian |date=4 July 2013}}</ref> The new Egyptian authorities cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood and its supporters, jailing thousands and forcefully dispersing pro-Morsi and pro-Brotherhood protests.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt protests: Hundreds killed after police storm pro-Morsi camps|newspaper=ABC News|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-08-15/hundreds-killed-in-cairo-as-security-forces-move-in-on-proteste/4887954|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|date=15 August 2013|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140804050054/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-08-15/hundreds-killed-in-cairo-as-security-forces-move-in-on-proteste/4887954|archive-date=4 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Abuse claims rife as Egypt admits jailing 16,000 Islamists in eight months|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/abuse-claims-rife-as-egypt-admits-jailing-16000-islamists-in-eight-months-9195824.html|newspaper=The Independent|date=16 March 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904163847/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/abuse-claims-rife-as-egypt-admits-jailing-16000-islamists-in-eight-months-9195824.html|archive-date=4 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Many of the Muslim Brotherhood leaders and activists have either been sentenced to death or life imprisonment in a series of mass trials.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt sentences 683 to death in latest mass trial of dissidents|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-sentences-683-to-death-in-latest-mass-trial-of-dissidents/2014/04/28/34e0ca2c-e8eb-4a85-8fa8-a7300ab11687_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=28 April 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140620091424/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-sentences-683-to-death-in-latest-mass-trial-of-dissidents/2014/04/28/34e0ca2c-e8eb-4a85-8fa8-a7300ab11687_story.html|archive-date=20 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Egyptian court sentences 529 people to death|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/egypt-sentences-529-to-death/2014/03/24/a4f95692-6992-461e-aaf1-9bc84908a429_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=24 March 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805081643/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/egypt-sentences-529-to-death/2014/03/24/a4f95692-6992-461e-aaf1-9bc84908a429_story.html|archive-date=5 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Egyptian court sentences Muslim Brotherhood leader to life in prison|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0FA0BL20140705|work=Reuters|date=4 July 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729133559/http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0FA0BL20140705|archive-date=29 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 18 January 2014, the interim government instituted a [[Constitution of Egypt|new constitution]] following a referendum approved by an overwhelming majority of voters (98.1%). 38.6% of registered voters participated in the referendum<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt constitution 'approved by 98.1 percent'|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/01/egypt-constitution-approved-981-percent-201411816326470532.html|publisher=Al Jazeera English|date=18 January 2014|access-date=18 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119234504/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/01/egypt-constitution-approved-981-percent-201411816326470532.html|archive-date=19 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> a higher number than the 33% who voted in a referendum during Morsi's tenure.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-01-18 |title=Egypt's new constitution gets 98% 'yes' vote |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/18/egypt-constitution-yes-vote-mohamed-morsi |access-date=2022-11-25 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> ==== President el-Sisi (2014–present) ==== [[File:Egypt Metro Covid19.jpg|thumb|upright|Women in Cairo wear face masks during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt]] in March 2020.]] On 26 March 2014, Field Marshal [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]], Egyptian Defence Minister and Commander-in-Chief [[Egyptian Armed Forces]], retired from the military, announcing he would stand as a candidate in the [[2014 Egyptian presidential election|2014 presidential election]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/97612/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-ElSisi-bids-military-farewell,-says-he-will.aspx|title=Egypt's El-Sisi bids military farewell, says he will run for presidency|publisher=Ahram Online|date=26 March 2014|access-date=26 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327220831/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/97612/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-ElSisi-bids-military-farewell,-says-he-will.aspx|archive-date=27 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> The poll, held between 26 and 28 May 2014, resulted in a landslide victory for el-Sisi.<ref>{{cite news|title=Former army chief scores landslide victory in Egypt presidential polls|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/29/abdel-fatah-al-sisi-sweeps-victory-egyptian-election|access-date=29 May 2014|newspaper=The Guardian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529170438/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/29/abdel-fatah-al-sisi-sweeps-victory-egyptian-election|archive-date=29 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Sisi was sworn into office as [[President of Egypt]] on 8 June 2014.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sisi sworn in as Egypt's president |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20140608-egypt-sisi-inauguration-president |work=France 24 |date=8 June 2014 |language=en}}</ref> The Muslim Brotherhood and some liberal and secular activist groups boycotted the vote.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sisi elected Egypt president by landslide|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/05/sisi-wins-egypt-elections-landslide-2014529134910264238.html|date=30 May 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140602061150/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/05/sisi-wins-egypt-elections-landslide-2014529134910264238.html|archive-date=2 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though the interim authorities extended voting to a third day, the 46% turnout was lower than the 52% turnout in the 2012 election.<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt election: Sisi secures landslide win|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27614776|publisher=BBC|date=29 May 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140722093407/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27614776|archive-date=22 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> A new parliamentary election was held in December 2015, resulting in a landslide victory for pro-Sisi parties, which secured a strong majority in the newly formed [[House of Representatives (Egypt)|House of Representatives]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt's elections committee announces final parliamentary results - Egypt Elections 2015 - Egypt |url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/164/173877/Egypt/Egypt-Elections-/Egypts-elections-committee-announces-final-parliam.aspx |work=Ahram Online}}</ref> In 2016, Egypt entered in a diplomatic crisis with Italy following the [[Murder of Giulio Regeni|murder of researcher Giulio Regeni]]: in April 2016, Prime Minister [[Matteo Renzi]] recalled the Italian ambassador from Cairo because of lack of co-operation from the Egyptian Government in the investigation.<ref>{{cite news |title=Giulio Regeni murder: Italy recalls ambassador to Egypt |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36001416 |work=BBC News |date=8 April 2016}}</ref> The ambassador was sent back to Egypt in 2017 by the new Prime Minister [[Paolo Gentiloni]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Italy to return ambassador to Cairo, ending standoff over murdered student |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-egypt-regeni-murder-idUSKCN1AU1YL |work=Reuters |date=14 August 2017 |language=en}}</ref> El-Sisi was [[2018 Egyptian presidential election|re-elected in 2018]], facing no serious opposition.<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt's Sisi wins 97 percent in election with no real opposition |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-election-result-idUSKCN1H916A |work=Reuters |date=2 April 2018 |language=en}}</ref> In 2019, a series of constitutional amendments were approved by the parliament, further increasing the President's and the military's power, increasing presidential terms from 4 years to 6 years, and allowing incumbent president El-Sisi to run for an additional third term.<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt parliament extends presidential term to six years |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/egypt-parliament-extends-presidential-term-to-six-years/1454194 |work=www.aa.com.tr}}</ref> The proposals [[2019 Egyptian constitutional referendum|were approved in a referendum]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Sisi wins snap Egyptian referendum amid vote-buying claims |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/23/sisi-wins-snap-egyptian-referendum-amid-vote-buying-claims |work=the Guardian |date=23 April 2019 |language=en}}</ref> The dispute between Egypt and [[Ethiopia]] over the [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]] escalated in 2020.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Walsh |first1=Decian |title=For Thousands of Years, Egypt Controlled the Nile. A New Dam Threatens That |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/02/09/world/africa/nile-river-dam.html |newspaper=New York Times |date=9 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200210015121/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/02/09/world/africa/nile-river-dam.html |archive-date=10 February 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=An Egyptian cyber attack on Ethiopia by hackers is the latest strike over the Grand Dam |url=https://qz.com/africa/1874343/egypt-cyber-attack-on-ethiopia-is-strike-over-the-grand-dam/ |work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] |date=27 June 2020}}</ref> Egypt sees the dam as an existential threat,<ref>{{cite news |title=Are Egypt and Ethiopia heading for a water war? |url=https://www.theweek.co.uk/107468/are-egypt-and-ethiopia-heading-for-a-water-war |work=The Week |date=8 July 2020}}</ref> fearing that the dam will reduce the amount of water it receives from the [[Nile]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Row over Africa's largest dam in danger of escalating, warn scientists |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02124-8 |work=Nature |date=15 July 2020}}</ref> In December 2020, final results of the parliamentary [[2020 Egyptian parliamentary election|election]] confirmed a clear majority of the seats for Egypt's Mostaqbal Watn ([[Nation's Future Party|Nation's Future]]) Party, which strongly supports president el-Sisi. The party even increased its majority, partly because of new electoral rules.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pro-Sisi party wins majority in Egypt's parliamentary polls |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/egypt-election-int-idUSKBN28O2T0 |work=Reuters |date=14 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref> In December 2023, el-Sisi won the [[2023 Egyptian presidential election|2023 presidential election]] with 89.6% of the vote, and was re-elected to an additional third term that lasts until 2030. The official turnout was 66.8%, the highest of any Egyptian presidential election since 2012.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/results-due-egypt-election-with-sisi-expected-sweep-third-term-2023-12-18/|access-date=3 March 2024|date=19 December 2023|title=Egypt's Sisi sweeps to third term as president with 89.6% of vote|first1=Farah|last1=Saafan|first2=Aidan|last2=Lewis|work=Reuters}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page