Advaita Vedanta Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==Moksha – liberating knowledge of Brahman== ===Knowledge is liberating=== [[File:Sri Ramana Maharshi - Portrait - G. G Welling - 1948.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ramana Maharshi]], the Indian sage who is widely regarded as a Jivanmukta]] {{See also|Jnana|Prajna (Vedic)|Mahāvākyas#Prajñānam Brahma|l1=Jnana|l2=Prajna|l3=Prajñānam Brahma}} The soteriological goal, in Advaita, is to gain self-knowledge as being in essence (Atman), awareness or [[Sakshi (Witness)|witness-consciousness]], and complete understanding of the identity of ''jivan-ātman'' and [[Brahman]].{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=183}} Correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman is the attainment of ''Brahman'', immortality,{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|p=26}} and leads to ''[[moksha]]'' (liberation) from suffering{{refn|group=note|The suffering created by the workings of the mind entangled with physical reality}} and ''samsara'', the cycle of rebirth{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=183}} This is stated by Shankara as follows: {{blockquote| <poem> I am other than name, form and action. My nature is ever free! I am Self, the supreme unconditioned Brahman. I am pure Awareness, always non-dual. </poem> |Adi Shankara, [[Upadesasahasri]] 11.7|{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=183}}}} According to Advaita Vedānta, liberation can be achieved while living, and is called ''[[Jivanmukti]]''.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=320}} {{sfn|Comans|2000|pp=183–184}}{{refn|group=note|name=transformation}} in contrast to ''Videhamukti'' (moksha from samsara after death) in theistic sub-schools of Vedānta.{{sfn|Deussen|1980}}{{better source needed|date=January 2022}} The Atman-knowledge, that is the knowledge of true Self and its relationship to Brahman is central to this liberation in Advaita thought.{{refn|group=note|The true Self is itself just that pure consciousness, without which nothing can be known in any way.(...) And that same true Self, pure consciousness, is not different from the ultimate world Principle, Brahman (...) Brahman (<nowiki>=</nowiki>the true Self, pure consciousness) is the only Reality (''sat''), since It is untinged by difference, the mark of ignorance, and since It is the one thing that is not sublimatable.{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6–7}}}} Atman-knowledge, to Advaitins, is that state of full awareness, liberation and freedom which overcomes dualities at all levels, realizing the divine within oneself, the divine in others and all beings, the non-dual Oneness, that Brahman is in everything, and everything is Brahman.{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|pp=7, 99–103}}{{sfn|Sharma|2007|pp=9–13, 29–30, 45–47, 79–86}}{{refn|group=note|name="Fowler2002_monism"}} According to [[Anantanand Rambachan]], in Advaita, this state of liberating self-knowledge includes and leads to the understanding that "the self is the self of all, the knower of self sees the self in all beings and all beings in the self."{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|pp=109–111}} ===Attaining ''vidyā'' (knowledge)=== {{Main|Jnana Yoga}} Advaita Vedānta regards the liberated state of being ''Atman-Brahman'' as one's true identity and inherent to being human. According to Shankara and the Vivarana-school, no human action can 'produce' this liberated state, as it is what one already is.{{sfn|Barua|2015|p=262}} As Swami Vivekananda stated: {{blockquote|The Vedas cannot show you Brahman, you are That already. They can only help to take away the veil that hides truth from our eyes. The cessation of ignorance can only come when I know that God and I are one; in other words, identify yourself with Atman, not with human limitations. The idea that we are bound is only an illusion [Maya]. Freedom is inseparable from the nature of the Atman. This is ever pure, ever perfect, ever unchangeable. |Adi Shankara's commentary on Fourth [[Brahma Sutras#Chapter 4: The benefits of spiritual knowledge|Vyasa Sutra]], Swami Vivekananda{{sfnp|Vivekananda|1947|pp=63-65}}}} Yet, the Advaita-tradition also emphasizes human effort, the path of Jnana Yoga, a progression of study and training to realize one's true identity as ''Atman-Brahman'' and attain [[moksha]].{{sfn|Barua|2015|p=262}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1988|pp=104–105}}{{sfn|Comans|2000|pp=125–142}} According to critics of [[neo-Advaita]], which also emphasizes direct insight, traditional Advaita Vedanta entails more than self-inquiry or bare insight into one's real nature, but also includes self-restraint, textual studies and ethical perfection. It is described in classical Advaita books like Shankara's [[Upadesasahasri]]{{sfn|Mayeda|2006}} and the [[Vivekachudamani]], which is also attributed to Shankara. ''Sruti'' (scriptures), proper reasoning and meditation are the main sources of knowledge (''vidya'') for the Advaita Vedānta tradition.{{sfn|Rambachan|1984}}{{sfn|Dalal|2009|p=22}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}} It teaches that correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman is achievable by ''[[svādhyāya]]'',{{sfn|Sivananda|1977|p=viii}} study of the self and of the Vedic texts, and three stages of practice: ''sravana'' (perception, hearing), ''manana'' (thinking) and ''nididhyasana'' (meditation),{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}} a three-step methodology that is rooted in the teachings of chapter 4 of the ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]''.{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}}<ref name="John A. Grimes 1996 98–99">{{harvnb|Grimes|1996|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qcoUFYOX0bEC&pg=PA99 98–99]}}</ref> ==== Preparation: the fourfold qualities ==== The Advaita student has to develop the fourfold qualities,{{sfnp|Maharaj|2014|pp=88, context: pp. 82–108}} or behavioral qualifications (''Samanyasa'', ''Sampattis'', ''sādhana-catustaya''):{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|pp=251–254}}<ref name=davis38>{{cite book|author=Leesa S. Davis|title=Advaita Vedanta and Zen Buddhism: Deconstructive Modes of Spiritual Inquiry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_kHcG0tspgC&pg=PA38 |year=2010|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-0-8264-2068-8|pages=38–39}}</ref>{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105–108}}{{refn|group=note|These characteristics and steps are described in various Advaita texts, such as by Shankara in Chapter 1.1 of ''Brahmasutrabhasya'',{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}} and in the Bhagavad Gita Chapter 10}} A student is Advaita Vedānta tradition is required to develop these four qualities - # ''{{IAST|Nityānitya vastu viveka}}'' (नित्यानित्य वस्तु विवेकम्) – Viveka is the ability to correctly discriminate between the real and eternal (''nitya'') and the substance that is apparently real, illusory, changing and transitory (''anitya'').{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|pp=251–254}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}} # ''{{IAST|Ihāmutrārtha phala bhoga virāga}}'' (इहाऽमुत्रार्थ फल भोगविरागम्) – The renunciation (''virāga'') of all desires of the mind (bhoga) for sense pleasures, in this world (iha) and other worlds. Willing to give up everything that is an obstacle to the pursuit of truth and self-knowledge.{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}<ref name=gthibaut>George Thibaut, {{Google books|2QswAAAAYAAJ|The Sacred Books of the East: The Vedanta-Sutras, Part 1|page=12}}, Oxford University Press, Editor: Max Muller, p. 12 with footnote 1</ref> # ''{{IAST|Śamādi ṣatka sampatti}}'' (शमादि षट्क सम्पत्ति) – the sixfold virtues or qualities - ## ''Śama'' - mental tranquility, ability to focus the mind.{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}<ref name=gthibaut/> ## ''[[Temperance (virtue)#Hinduism|Dama]]'' - self-restraint,{{refn|group=note|Example self-restraints mentioned in Hindu texts: one must refrain from any violence that causes injury to others, refrain from starting or propagating deceit and falsehood, refrain from theft of other's property, refrain from sexually cheating on one's partner, and refrain from avarice.{{sfnp|Heim|2005|pp=341–354}}{{sfnp|Lochtefeld|2001|p=777}}{{sfnp|Rao|1926}}}} the virtue of temperance.{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}<ref name=gthibaut/> restraining the senses. ## ''[[Uparati]]'' - dispassion, lack of desire for worldly pleasures, ability to be quiet and disassociated from everything;{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}} discontinuation of all religious duties and ceremonies<ref name=gthibaut/> ## ''[[Titiksha|Titikṣa]]'' - endurance, perseverance, putting up with pairs of opposites (like heat and cold, pleasure and pain), ability to be patient during demanding circumstances{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}<ref name=gthibaut/> ## ''[[Śraddhā]]'' - having faith in teacher and the [[Sruti]] scriptural texts{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}} ## ''[[Samadhana|Samādhāna]]'' - contentedness, satisfaction of mind in all conditions, attention, intentness of mind{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}<ref name=gthibaut/> # ''{{IAST|Mumukṣutva}}'' (मुमुक्षुत्वम्) – An intense longing for freedom, liberation and wisdom, driven to the quest of knowledge and understanding. Having moksha as the primary goal of life{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}{{sfnp|Maharaj|2014|pp=88, context: pp. 82–108}} ==== The threefold practice: ''sravana'' (hearing), ''manana'' (thinking) and ''nididhyasana'' (meditation)==== The Advaita tradition teaches that correct knowledge, which destroys ''avidya'', psychological and perceptual errors related to Atman and Brahman,{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=78–79}} is obtained in ''jnanayoga'' through three stages of practice,<ref name=davis38/> ''sravana'' (hearing), ''manana'' (thinking) and ''nididhyasana'' (meditation).{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}} This three-step methodology is rooted in the teachings of chapter 4 of the ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]'':{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}}<ref name="John A. Grimes 1996 98–99"/> * ''Sravana'', which literally means hearing. The student listens and discusses the ideas, concepts, questions and answers.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}}{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}} of the sages on the [[Upanishads]] and Advaita Vedānta, studying the Vedantic texts, such as the [[Brahma Sutras]], aided by discussions with the [[guru]] (teacher, counsellor).{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|pp=251–254}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=106–110}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}} * ''Manana'' refers to thinking on these discussions and contemplating over the various ideas based on ''svadhyaya'' and ''sravana''.{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=106–110}}<ref>{{cite book|author1=Robert P. Waxler|author2=Maureen P. Hall|title=Transforming Literacy: Changing Lives Through Reading and Writing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dB7gXgmOhR4C&pg=PA105 |year=2011|publisher=Emerald |isbn=978-0-85724-628-8|pages=105–106}}</ref> It is the stage of [[Manana (reflection)|reflection on the teachings]];{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=106–110}} * ''[[Nididhyāsana]]'', the stage of meditation and introspection.{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}<ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100234232 |title=Oxford Index, ''nididhyāsana'' |access-date=8 February 2017 |archive-date=5 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705051012/http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100234232 |url-status=live }}</ref> This stage of practice aims at realization and consequent conviction of the truths, non-duality and a state where there is a fusion of thought and action, knowing and being.{{sfn|Dalal|2009|p=16}}{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}} Although the threefold practice is broadly accepted in the Advaita tradition, Shankara's works show an ambivalence toward it: while accepting its authenticity and merits, as it is based in the scriptures, he also takes a [[Subitism|subitist]] position,{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=6}} arguing that ''moksha'' is attained at once when the ''mahavakyas'', articulating the identity of ''Atman'' and ''Brahman'', are understood.{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=9}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=182 (Up.I.18.103-104)}}<ref group=note>See also kelamuni (2006), ''The Philosophy of Adi Shankaracharya'', section "II. The Threefold Means," on Brahma Sutra Bhashya 4.1.2 and subitism.</ref> According to Rambachan, "it is not possible to reconcile Sankara's views with this seemingly well-ordered system."{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|p=97}} [[Mandana Misra]], on the other hand, explicitly affirms the threefold practice as the means to acquire knowledge of Brahman, referring to meditation as ''dhyana''.{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=18}} He states that these practices, though conceptual, 'can eliminate both ignorance and coneptuality at the same time, leaving only the "pure, transparent nature" of self-awareness'.{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=19}} Bilimoria states that these three stages of Advaita practice can be viewed as ''sadhana'' practice that unifies ''[[Yoga]]'' and ''[[Karma]]'' ("action," referring here to ritual) ideas, and was most likely derived from these older traditions.<ref>{{cite book|author=P.P. Bilimoria|title=Śabdapramāṇa: Word and Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arvrCAAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-009-2911-1|pages=299–301}}</ref>{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=106–110}} ====Guru==== {{Main|Guru}} Advaita Vedānta school has traditionally had a high reverence for Guru (teacher), and recommends that a competent Guru be sought in one's pursuit of spirituality, though this is not mandatory.{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=182}} Reading of Vedic literature and reflection is the most essential practice.{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=182}} Adi Shankara, states Comans, regularly employed compound words "such as ''Sastracaryopadesa'' (instruction by way of the scriptures and the teacher) and ''Vedāntacaryopadesa'' (instruction by way of the Upanishads and the teacher) to emphasize the importance of Guru".{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=182}} According to Comans, this reflects the Advaita tradition which holds a competent teacher as important and essential to gaining correct knowledge, freeing oneself from false knowledge, and to self-realization.{{sfn|Comans|2000|pp=182–183}} Nevertheless, in the Bhamati-school the guru has a less essential role, as he can explain the teachings, but the student has to venture its further study.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}} A guru is someone more than a teacher, traditionally a reverential figure to the student, with the ''guru'' serving as a "counselor, who helps mold values, shares experiential knowledge as much as literal knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student.<ref name=joelmlecko33>Joel Mlecko (1982), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3269931 The Guru in Hindu Tradition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906162935/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3269931 |date=6 September 2023 }} Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, pp. 33–61</ref> The guru, states Joel Mlecko, is more than someone who teaches specific type of knowledge, and includes in its scope someone who is also a "counselor, a sort of parent of mind and soul, who helps mold values and experiential knowledge as much as specific knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who reveals the meaning of life."<ref name=joelmlecko33/> ====''Pramana'' (means of knowledge)==== In classical Indian thought, ''[[pramana]]'' ([[epistemology|means of knowledge]]) concerns questions like how correct knowledge can be acquired; how one knows, how one doesn't; and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Potter |year=2002 |title=Presuppositions of India's Philosophies |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=81-208-0779-0 |pages=25–26}}</ref><ref name=dpsb>{{cite book |first=DPS |last=Bhawuk |year=2011 |title=Spirituality and Indian Psychology |editor=Anthony Marsella |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-8109-7 |page=172}}</ref> In contrast to other schools of Indian philosophy, early Vedanta paid little attention to ''[[pramana]]''.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=46}} The ''Brahmasutras'' are not concerned with ''pramana'', and ''pratyaksa'' (sense-perception) and ''anumana'' (inference) refer there to ''sruti'' and ''smriti'' respectively.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=46}} Shankara recognized the means of knowledge,{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=46}}{{refn|group=note|Mayeda refers to statements from Shankara regarding epistemology (''pramana-janya'') in section 1.18.133 of Upadesasahasri, and section 1.1.4 of Brahmasutra-bhasya.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=46–47}}{{sfnp|Bādarāyaṇa|1936|p=35}}{{refn|group=note| NB: some manuscripts list Upadesasahasri verse 1.18.133 as 2.18.133, while Mayeda lists it as 1.18.133, because of interchanged chapter numbering.{{sfn|Śaṅkarācārya|1949|loc=Verse 2.8.133, p. 258}}{{sfn|Potter|2014|p=249}}}} but his thematic focus was upon [[metaphysics]] and [[soteriology]], and he took for granted the ''pramanas''.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=47}} For Shankara, ''sabda'' is the only means of knowledge for attaining ''Brahman-jnana''.{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=49-50}} According to Sengaku Mayeda, "in no place in his works [...] does he give any systematic account of them,"{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=47}} taking ''Atman-Brahman'' to be self-evident (''svapramanaka'') and self-established (''svatahsiddha''), and "an investigation of the means of knowledge is of no use for the attainment of final release."{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=47}} Nevertheless, the Advaita tradition accepts altogether six kinds of {{IAST|pramāṇas}}.{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=238}}{{sfn|Datta|1932|pp=221–253}}{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=228}}{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=49-50}} While Adi Shankara emphasized ''[[Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism|Śabda]]'' (शब्द), relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts with regard to religious insights,<ref name=dpsb/>{{sfn|Deutsch|2000|p=245-248}}{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=238}}{{sfn|King|1999|p=14}} and also accepted ''pratyakṣa'' (प्रत्यक्षाय), perception; and ''anumāṇa'' (अनुमान), inference — Classical Advaita Vedānta, just like the [[Kumārila Bhaṭṭa|Bhatta Purvamimamsaka school]], also accepts ''upamāṇa'' (उपमान), comparison, analogy; ''arthāpatti'' (अर्थापत्ति), postulation, derivation from circumstances;<ref name=dpsb/>{{sfn|Flood1996|p=225}} and ''[[anupalabdhi]]'' (अनुपलब्धि), non-perception, negative/cognitive proof.{{sfn|Deutsch|2000|p=245-248}}{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=238}} =====Samadhi===== The Advaita tradition emphasizes that, since Brahman is ever-present, Brahman-knowledge is immediate and requires no 'action', that is, striving and effort, as articulated by Shankara;{{sfn|Dubois|2013|p=xvii}} yet, it also prescribes elaborate preparatory practice, including yogic samadhi, posing a paradox which is also recognized in other spiritual disciplines and traditions.{{sfn|Barua|2015}}{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021}}{{refn|group=note|name=subitism}} Shankara regarded the ''srutis'' as the means of knowledge of Brahman, and he was ambivalent about yogic practices and meditation, which at best may prepare one for ''Brahma-jnana''.<ref group=web name=Stanford_Dalal2021/> According to Rambachan, criticising Vivekananda, Shankara states that the knowledge of Brahman can only be obtained from inquiry of the [[Shruti]], and not by Yoga or samadhi, which at best can only silence the mind.{{sfn|Rambachan|1994|pp=124–125}} The Bhamati school and the Vivarana school differed on the role of contemplation, but they both "deny the possibility of perceiving supersensuous knowledge through popular yoga techniques."{{sfn|Cenkner|1995|p=96}} Later Advaita texts like the ''[[Dṛg-Dṛśya-Viveka]]'' (14th century) and ''[[Vedantasara (of Sadananda)|Vedāntasara (of Sadananda)]]'' (15th century) added [[samādhi]] as a means to liberation, a theme that was also emphasized by Swami Vivekananda.{{sfn|Madaio|2017|pp=4–5}} The [[Vivekachudamani]], traditionally attributed to Shankara but post-dating him,{{sfn|Grimes|2004|p=23}} "conceives of ''[[nirvikalpa samadhi]]'' as the premier method of Self-realization over and above the well-known vedantic discipline of listening, reflection and deep contemplation."{{sfn|Madaio|2017|p=5}} Koller states that yogic concentration is an aid to gaining knowledge in Advaita.{{sfn|Koller|2013|p=101}} ===== ''Anubhava'' ('experience')===== The role of ''anubhava'', ''anubhuti'' ("experience," "intuition"{{sfn|Bowker|2000b|loc="Anubhava"}}) as "experience" in gaining ''Brahman-jnana'' is contested. While neo-Vedanta claims a central position for ''anubhava'' as "experience," Shankara himself regarded reliance on textual authority as sufficient for gaining ''Brahman-jnana'',{{sfn|Halbfass|2017|p=387}}{{refn|group=note|See also ramesam, [https://www.advaita-vision.org/atma-anubhava-anubhuti/ ''AtmA anubhava / anubhUti''] (blog).}} "the intuition of Brahman,"{{sfn|Bowker|2000b|loc="Anubhava"}} and used ''anubhava'' interchangeably with ''pratipatta'', "understanding".{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=68}} Arvind Sharma argues that Shankara's own "direct experience of the ultimate truth" guided him in selecting "those passages of the scriptures that resonate with this experience and will select them as the key with which to open previously closed, even forbidden, doors."{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=177}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Sharma|2000|p=177}} refers to ''Brahma Sutra Bhashya'' 4.1.15, "which tradition views as an allusion to his own direct experience of the ultimate truth." It runs as follows: [...] How can one contest the heart-felt cognition of another as possessing ''brahman''-knowledge, even though bearing a body?}} The ''[[Vivekachudamani]]'' "explicit[ly] declar[es] that experience (''anubhuti'') is a ''pramana'', or means of knowing (VCM 59),"{{sfn|Madaio|2017|p=5}} and [[neo-Vedanta]] also accepts ''anubhava'' ("personal experience") as a means of knowledge.{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=xii–xiii}} Dalal and others state that ''anubhava'' does not center around some sort of "mystical experience," but around the correct knowledge of Brahman.{{sfn|Dalal|2009|p=22}}{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=1–14}} Nikhalananda concurs, stating that (knowledge of) ''Atman'' and ''Brahman'' can only be reached by ''[[buddhi]]'', "reason,"{{sfn|Nikhalananda|1931|p=viii}} stating that mysticism is a kind of intuitive knowledge, while ''buddhi'' is the highest means of attaining knowledge.{{sfn|Nikhalananda|1931|pp=viii–ix}} ====''Adhyaropa Apavada'' - imposition and negation==== {{See also|Neti neti|l1=Neti Neti}} Since Gaudapada,{{sfn|Nelson|1996|p=29}} who adopted the Buddhist four-cornered negation which negates any positive predicates of 'the Absolute',{{sfn|Raju|1971|p=177}}{{Sfn|Sarma|2007|pp=126, 143-144}}{{refn|group=note|1. Something is. 2. It is not. 3. It both is and is not. 4. It neither is nor is not.{{sfn|Garfield|Priest|2003}}}} a central method in Advaita Vedanta to express the inexpressable is the method called ''Adhyaropa Apavada''.{{sfn|Nelson|1996|p=29}} In this method, which was highly estimated by [[Satchidanandendra Saraswati]], a property is imposed (''adhyaropa'') on Atman to convince one of its existence, whereafter the imposition is removed (''apavada'') to reveal the true nature of Atman as nondual and undefinable.{{sfn|Murthi|2009|pp=158-159}} In this method, "That which cannot be expressed is expressed through false attribution and subsequent denial."{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2006|p=5}} As Shankara writes, "First let me bring them on the right path, and then I will gradually be able to bring them round to the final truth afterwards."{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2006|p=5}} For example, Atman, the real "I," is described as [[Sakshi (Witness)|witness]], giving "it" an attribute to separate it from non-self. Since this implies a duality between observer and observed, next the notion of "witness" is dropped, by showing that the Self cannot be seen and is beyond qualifications, and only that what is remains, without using any words:<ref group=web name=adhyAropa_apavAda>{{Cite web |url=https://www.advaita-vedanta.in/adhyaropa-apavada |title=''adhyAropa apavAda'' |access-date=29 January 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129091002/https://www.advaita-vedanta.in/adhyaropa-apavada |url-status=live }}</ref> {{blockquote|After one separates oneself i.e. 'I' or Atman from the sense objects, the qualities superimposed on Self are also negated by saying that which not being and not non-being, cannot be described by words, without beginning and end (BG 13.32) or as in Satyam Jnanam Anantam Brahman, beyond words, beyond mind and speech, etc. Here there is an attempt to negate the earlier attribute like being witness, bliss, most subtlest, etc. After this negation of false superimposition, Self Alone shines. One enters into the state of Nirvikalp Samadhi, where there is no second, no one to experience and hence this state cannot be described in words.<ref group=web name=adhyAropa_apavAda/>}} ====The ''Mahavyakas'' - the identity of Ātman and Brahman ==== ''Moksha'', liberation from suffering and rebirth and attaining immortality, is attained by disidentification from the body-mind complex and gaining self-knowledge as being in essence ''Atman'', and attaining knowledge of the identity of ''Atman'' and [[Brahman]].{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=183}}{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|p=26}} According to Shankara, the individual Ātman and Brahman seem different at the empirical level of reality, but this difference is only an illusion, and at the highest level of reality they are really identical.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=14}} The real self is ''Sat'', "the Existent," that is, ''Atman-Brahman''.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=12, 172}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|p=49}}{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman}} Whereas the difference between Atman and non-Atman is deemed self-evident, knowledge of the identity of Atman and Brahman is revealed by the ''shruti'', especially the Upanishadic statement ''tat tvam asi''. =====''Mahavakyas''===== According to Shankara, a large number of Upanishadic statements reveal the identity of ''Atman'' and ''Brahman''. In the Advaita Vedanta tradition, four of those statements, the ''[[Mahavakyas]]'', which are taken literal, in contrast to other statements, have a special importance in revealing this identity.{{sfn|Long|2020|p=245}}{{sfn|Braue|1984|p=81}} They are: * तत्त्वमसि, ''[[Tattvamasi|tat tvam asi]]'', [[Chandogya Upanishad|Chandogya VI.8.7]]. Traditionally rendered as "That Thou Art" (that you are),{{sfn|Brereton|1986}}{{sfn|Olivelle|2008|p=349 note 8.7-16.3}}{{sfn|Black|2012|p=36}} with ''[[Tattva|tat]]'' in Ch.U.6.8.7 referring to ''[[Satya|sat]]'', "the Existent"{{sfn|Lipner|2000|pp=55 note 9; 57}}{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}{{sfn|Olivelle|2008|p=151-152; p.349 note 8.7-16.3}}); correctly translated as "That's how [thus] you are,"{{sfn|Brereton|1986}}{{sfn|Black|2012|p=36}}{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=152}} with ''tat'' in Ch.U.6.12.3, its original location from where it was copied to other verses,{{sfn|Brereton|1986}} referring to "the very nature of all existence as permeated by [the finest essence]"{{sfn|Bhatawadekar|2013|p=203, note 14}}{{sfn|Brereton|1986|p=107}} * अहं ब्रह्मास्मि, ''[[aham brahmāsmi]]'', [[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad|Brhadāranyaka I.4.10]], "I am Brahman," or "I am Divine."{{sfn|Braue|1984|p=80}} * प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म, ''prajñānam brahma'', [[Aitareya Upanishad|Aitareya V.3]], "''Prajñānam''{{refn|group=note|"Consciousness",{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=234}}<ref group=web name="Jiddu">{{Cite web |url=http://www.jiddu-krishnamurti.net/en/1969/1969-07-26-jiddu-krishnamurti-can-one-experience-the-infinite |title=Jiddu Krishnamurti, ''Saanen 2nd Conversation with Swami Venkatesananda 26 July 1969'' |access-date=3 January 2019 |archive-date=6 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106223706/http://jiddu-krishnamurti.net/en/1969/1969-07-26-jiddu-krishnamurti-can-one-experience-the-infinite |url-status=live }}</ref> "intelligence",{{sfn|Sivaraman|1973|p=146}}{{sfn|Braue|1984|p=80}} "wisdom"}} ''is Brahman''."{{refn|group=note|"the Absolute",{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=234}}<ref group=web name="Jiddu" /> "infinite",<ref group=web name="Jiddu" /> "the Highest truth"<ref group=web name="Jiddu" />}} * अयमात्मा ब्रह्म, ''ayamātmā brahma'', [[Mandukya Upanishad|Mandukya II]], "This Atman is Brahman." =====''That you are''===== The longest chapter of Shankara's ''[[Upadesasahasri]]'', chapter 18, "That Art Thou," is devoted to considerations on the insight "I am ever-free, the existent" (''[[Sat (Sanskrit)|sat]]''), and the identity expressed in [[Chandogya Upanishad#Sixth Prapāṭhaka|Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7]] in the ''[[Mahāvākyas|mahavakya]]'' (great sentence) "''tat tvam asi''", "that thou art."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=50, 172}}{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=57}} In this statement, according to Shankara, ''tat'' refers to '''[[Satya|Sat]]'',{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=57}} "the Existent"{{sfn|Lipner|2000|pp=55 note 9; 57}}{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}{{sfn|Olivelle|2008|p=151-152}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=172, Up.18.3, 18.6, 18.7}} Existence, Being,<ref group=web name="ShankaraBasya">{{cite web |url=http://shankarabhashya.com/index.php?PHPSESSID=343e9e12ffd6b71c499e1722e8813e90&topic=87.0 |title=Topic: CHAPTER 6 - SECTION 8 |date=April 7, 2019 |website=Shankarabhashya.com |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209212211/http://shankarabhashya.com/index.php?topic=87.0 |url-status=live }}</ref> or Brahman,{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=172, Up.18.6}} the Real, the "Root of the world,"{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=57}}{{refn|group=note|While the Vedanta tradition equates ''sat'' ("the Existent") with Brahman, the Chandogya Upanishad itself does not refer to Brahman.{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}{{sfn|Black|2012|p=36}} {{harvtxt|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}: "Although the text does not use the term ''brahman'', the Vedanta tradition is that the Existent (''sat'') referred to is no other than Brahman."}} the true essence or root or origin of everything that exists.{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}{{sfn|Olivelle|2008|p=151-152}}<ref group=web name="ShankaraBasya"/> "Tvam" refers to one's real I, ''pratyagatman'' or inner Self,{{sfn|Lipner|2000|pp=60, 62}} the "direct Witness within everything,"{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=60}} "free from caste, family, and purifying ceremonies,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=218 (up.II.1.24)}} the essence, ''Atman'', which the individual at the core is.{{sfnp|Muller|1879|pp=92-109 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Goodall|1996|pp=136–137}} As Shankara states in the ''[[Upadesasahasri]]'': {{blockquote|Up.I.174: "Through such sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own ''Atman'', the Witness of all the internal organs." Up.I.18.190: "Through such sentences as "[Thou art] the Existent" [...] right knowledge concerning the inner ''Atman'' will become clearer." Up.I.18.193-194: "In the sentence "Thou art That" [...] [t]he word "That" means inner ''Atman''."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=190-192}}}} The statement "tat tvam asi" sheds the false notion that ''Atman'' is different from ''Brahman''.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=91; 219 (Up.II.1.28)}} According toNakamura, the non-duality of ''atman'' and ''Brahman'' "is a famous characteristic of Sankara's thought, but it was already taught by Sundarapandya"{{sfn|Nakamura|1999|p=675}} (c.600 CE or earlier).{{sfn|Nakamura|1999|p=176}} Shankara cites Sundarapandya in his comments to ''Brahma Sutra'' verse I.1.4: {{blockquote|When the metaphorical or false ''atman'' is non-existent, [the ideas of my] child, [my] body are sublated. Therefore, when it is realized that 'I am the existent ''Brahman, atman''', how can anyduty exist?{{sfn|Nakamura|1999|p=178}}}} From this, and a large number of other accordances, Nakamura concludes that Shankar was not an original thinker, but "a synthesizer of existing Advaita and the rejuvenator, as well as a defender, of ancient learning."{{sfn|Nakamura|1999|p=679}} =====Direct perception versus contemplation of the ''Mahavakyas''===== In the ''Upadesasahasri Shankara'', Shankara is ambivalent on the need for meditation on the Upanishadic ''mahavakya''. He states that "right knowledge arises at the moment of hearing,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=182 (Up.I.18.103-104)}} and rejects ''prasamcaksa'' or ''prasamkhyana'' meditation, that is, meditation on the meaning of the sentences, and in Up.II.3 recommends ''parisamkhyana'',{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=173-174 (Up.I.18.9-19); p.196 note 13}} separating ''Atman'' from everything that is not ''Atman'', that is, the sense-objects and sense-organs, and the pleasant and unpleasant things and merit and demerit connected with them.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=251-253 (Up.II.3)}} Yet, Shankara then concludes with declaring that only ''Atman'' exists, stating that "all the sentences of the ''Upanishads'' concerning non-duality of ''Atman'' should be fully contemplated, should be contemplated."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=253 (Up.II.3)}} As Mayeda states, "how they [''prasamcaksa'' or ''prasamkhyana'' versus ''parisamkhyana''] differ from each other in not known."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=196 note 13}} ''Prasamkhyana'' was advocated by Mandana Misra,{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|p=155}} the older contemporary of Shankara who was the most influential Advaitin until the 10th century.{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33-34}}{{refn|group=note|name="Influence_of_Shankara"}} "According to Mandana, the ''mahavakyas'' are incapable, by themselves, of bringing about ''brahmajnana''. The ''Vedanta-vakyas'' convey an indirect knowledge which is made direct only by deep meditation (''prasamkhyana''). The latter is a continuous contemplation of the purport of the ''mahavakyas''.{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=155-156}} Vācaspati Miśra, a student of Mandana Misra, agreed with Mandana Misra, and their stance is defended by the Bhamati-school, founded by Vācaspati Miśra.{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|p=156}} In contrast, the [[Vivarana]] school founded by Prakasatman (c. 1200–1300){{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}} follows Shankara closely, arguing that the ''mahavakyas'' are the direct cause of gaining knowledge.{{sfn|Cenkner|1995|p=95}} Shankara's insistence on direct knowledge as liberating also differs from the ''[[asparsa yoga]]'' described in Gaudapada's ''Mandukyakarika'' III.39-46.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=367}} In this practice of 'non-contact' (''a-[[sparśa]]''), the mind is controlled and brought to rest, and does not create "things" (appearances) after which it grasps; it becomes non-dual, free from the subject-[grasping]-object dualism.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=365-366}}{{sfn|Reddy Juturi|2021}} Knowing that only ''Atman-Brahman'' is real, the creations of the mind are seen as false appearances (MK III.31-33). When the mind is brought to rest, it becomes or is ''Brahman'' (MK III.46).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=367}} =====Renouncement of ritualism===== In the ''Upadesasahasri'' Shankara discourages ritual worship such as oblations to ''Deva'' (God), because that assumes the Self within is different from [[Brahman]].{{refn|group=note|name="ritualism"|Shankara, himself, had renounced all religious ritual acts;{{sfn|Potter|2008|p=16}}<br/>For an example of Shankara's reasoning "why rites and ritual actions should be given up",<ref>Karl Potter on p. 220;{{full citation needed|date=February 2022}}</ref> Elsewhere, Shankara's ''Bhasya'' on various Upanishads repeat "give up rituals and rites".<ref>{{cite book |title=Shankara's Bhasya on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad |translator=S Madhavananda |year=1950 |url=https://archive.org/details/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda |pages=[https://archive.org/details/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda/page/348/mode/2up?view=theater 348–350, 754–757]}}</ref>}}{{refn |group=note |name="Mookerji" |1=Compare {{harvnb|Mookerji|2011}} on [[Svādhyāya]] (Vedic learning). {{harvtxt|Mookerji|2011|pp=29–31}} notes that the Rigveda, and Sayana's commentary, contain passages criticizing as fruitless mere recitation of the ''Ŗik'' (words) without understanding their inner meaning or essence, the knowledge of ''dharma'' and ''Parabrahman''. {{harvtxt|Mookerji|2011|pp=29, 34}} concludes that in the Rigvedic education of the mantras "the contemplation and comprehension of [[Nirukta|their meaning]] was considered as more important and vital to education than their mere mechanical repetition and correct pronunciation." {{harvtxt|Mookerji|2011|p=35}} refers to Sayana as stating that "the mastery of texts, ''akshara-praptī'', is followed by ''[[artha]]-[[Buddhi|bodha]]'', perception of their meaning." (''[[Artha]]'' may also mean "goal, purpose or essence," depending on the context.{{sfn|Potter|1998|p=610 (note 17)}}<ref group=web>{{cite web |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=artha&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 |title=artha |work=Sanskrit English Dictionary |publisher=University of Koeln, Germany |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607221225/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=artha&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 |archive-date=2015-06-07}}</ref>) According to {{harvtxt|Mookerji|2011|p=36}}, "the realization of [[rta|Truth]]" and the knowledge of ''[[paramatman]]'' as revealed to the ''rishis'' is the real aim of Vedic learning, and not the mere recitation of texts.}} The "doctrine of difference" is wrong, asserts Shankara, because, "he who knows the Brahman is one and he is another, does not know Brahman".{{sfn|Śaṅkarācārya|1949|pp=16–17}}{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=219–221}} The false notion that ''Atman'' is different from ''Brahman''{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=91; 219 (Up.II.1.28)}} is connected with the novice's conviction that (''Upadesasaharsi II.1.25'') {{blockquote|...I am one [and] He is another; I am ignorant, experience pleasure and pain, am bound and a transmigrator [whereas] he is essentially different from me, the god not subject to transmigration. By worshipping Him with oblation, offerings, homage and the like through the [performance of] the actions prescribed for [my] class and stage of life, I wish to get out of the ocean of transmigratory existence. How am I he?{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=91, 218}}}} Recognizing oneself as "the Existent-''Brahman''," which is mediated by scriptural teachings, is contrasted with the notion of "I act," which is mediated by relying on sense-perception and the like.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=172-173 (Up.I.18.3-8)}} According to Shankara, the statement "Thou art That" "remove[s] the delusion of a hearer,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=183 (Up.I.18.99-100)}} "so through sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own ''Atman'', the witness of all internal organs,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=190 (Up.I.18.174)}} and not from any actions.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=192 (Up.I.18.196-197); p.195 (Up.I.18.2019)}}{{refn|group=note|Up.I.18.219: "The renunciation of all actions becomes the means for discriminating the meaning of the word "Thou" since there is an [Upanisadic] teaching, "Having become calm, self-controlled [..., one sees ''Atman'' there in oneself]" (Bhr. Up. IV, 4, 23)."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=195 (Up.I.18.2019)}}}} With this realization, the performance of rituals is prohibited, "since [the use of] rituals and their requisites is contradictory to the realization of the identity [of ''Atman''] with the highest ''Atman''."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=85, 220 (Up.II.1.30)}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page