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Do not fill this in! ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of Europe}} [[File:Map of populous Europe (physical, political, population) with legend.jpg|thumb|Map of populous Europe and surrounding regions showing physical, political and population characteristics, as per 2018]] Europe makes up the western fifth of the [[Eurasia]]n landmass.<ref name="Encarta"/> It has a higher ratio of coast to landmass than any other continent or subcontinent.<ref>{{cite news |last = Cuper |first = Simon |date = 23 May 2014 |title = Why Europe works |url = http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/51dd9432-db03-11e3-8273-00144feabdc0.html |newspaper = [[ft.com]] |access-date = 28 May 2014 |archive-date = 22 August 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160822231728/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/51dd9432-db03-11e3-8273-00144feabdc0.html |url-status = live }}</ref> Its maritime borders consist of the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas to the south.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195686/Europe Europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503113529/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195686/Europe |date=3 May 2015 }}. Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> Land relief in Europe shows great variation within relatively small areas. The southern regions are more mountainous, while moving north the terrain descends from the high [[Alps]], [[Pyrenees]] and [[Carpathians]], through hilly uplands, into broad, low northern plains, which are vast in the east. This extended lowland is known as the [[Great European Plain]] and at its heart lies the [[North German Plain]]. An arc of uplands also exists along the north-western seaboard, which begins in the western parts of the islands of Britain and Ireland, and then continues along the mountainous, [[fjord]]-cut spine of Norway. This description is simplified. Subregions such as the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and the [[Italian Peninsula]] contain their own complex features, as does mainland Central Europe itself, where the relief contains many plateaus, river valleys and basins that complicate the general trend. Sub-regions like [[Iceland]], Britain and Ireland are special cases. The former is a land unto itself in the northern ocean that is counted as part of Europe, while the latter are upland areas that were once joined to the mainland until [[sea level rise|rising sea levels]] cut them off. ===Climate=== {{Main|Climate of Europe}} [[File:Vegetation Europe.png|thumb|[[Biome]]s of Europe and surrounding regions: <br /> {{legend0|#9fd6c9|[[tundra]]}} {{legend0|#a7bddb|[[alpine tundra]]}} {{legend0|#006d64|[[taiga]]}} {{legend0|#3c9798|[[montane forest]]}} <br /> {{legend0|#a4e05d|[[temperate broadleaf forest]]}} {{legend0|#907699|[[mediterranean forest]]}} {{legend0|#f7ec6f|[[temperate steppe]]}} {{legend0|#9b8447|[[dry steppe]]}} ]] Europe lies mainly in the [[temperate]] climate zone of the northern hemisphere, where the [[prevailing westerlies|prevailing wind direction is from the west]]. The climate is milder in comparison to other areas of the same latitude around the globe due to the influence of the [[Gulf Stream]], an ocean current which carries warm water from the [[Gulf of Mexico]] across the [[Atlantic ocean]] to Europe.<ref name="climate">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbook.com/wb/Students?content_spotlight/climates/european_climate |title=European Climate |website=World Book |access-date=16 June 2008 |publisher=World Book, Inc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061109230709/http://www.worldbook.com/wb/Students?content_spotlight%2Fclimates%2Feuropean_climate |archive-date=9 November 2006 }}</ref> The Gulf Stream is nicknamed "Europe's central heating", because it makes Europe's climate warmer and wetter than it would otherwise be. The Gulf Stream not only carries warm water to Europe's coast but also warms up the prevailing westerly winds that blow across the continent from the Atlantic Ocean. Therefore, the average temperature throughout the year of [[Aveiro, Portugal|Aveiro]] is {{cvt|16|C}}, while it is only {{cvt|13|C}} in [[New York City]] which is almost on the same latitude, bordering the same ocean. Berlin, Germany; Calgary, Canada; and Irkutsk, in far south-eastern Russia, lie on around the same latitude; January temperatures in Berlin average around {{cvt|8|C-change}} higher than those in Calgary and they are almost {{cvt|22|C-change}} higher than average temperatures in Irkutsk.<ref name="climate"/> The large water masses of the [[Mediterranean Sea]], which equalise the temperatures on an annual and daily average, are also of particular importance. The water of the Mediterranean extends from the [[Sahara desert]] to the Alpine arc in its northernmost part of the [[Adriatic Sea]] near [[Trieste]].<ref>Josef Wasmayer "Wetter- und Meereskunde der Adria" (1976), pp 5.</ref> In general, Europe is not just colder towards the north compared to the south, but it also gets colder from the west towards the east. The climate is more oceanic in the west and less so in the east. This can be illustrated by the following table of average temperatures at locations roughly following the 64th, 60th, 55th, 50th, 45th and 40th [[latitudes]]. None of them is located at high altitude; most of them are close to the sea. [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map Europe present.svg|thumb|650px|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen-Geiger climate classification]] map for Europe<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beck |first1=Hylke E. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar |first3=Tim R. |last4=Vergopolan |first4=Noemi |last5=Berg |first5=Alexis |last6=Wood |first6=Eric F. |author6-link=Eric Franklin Wood|title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |journal=Scientific Data |date=30 October 2018 |volume=5 |pages=180214 |doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214|pmid=30375988 |pmc=6207062 |bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B }}</ref>]] {| class="wikitable" |+Temperatures in °C |- ! Location !! Latitude !! Longitude !!Coldest<br>month!!Hottest<br>month!!Annual<br>average |- | [[Reykjavík]] || 64 N || 22 W || 0.1 || 11.2 || 4.7 |- | [[Umeå]] || 64 N || 20 E || −6.2 || 16.0 || 3.9 |- | [[Oulu]] || 65 N || 25.5 E || −9.6 || 16.5 || 2.7 |- | [[Arkhangelsk]] || 64.5 N || 40.5 E || −12.7 || 16.3 || 1.3 |-bgcolor="000000" |colspan=6| |- | [[Lerwick]] || 60 N || 1 W || 3.5 || 12.4 || 7.4 |- | [[Stockholm]] || 59.5 N || 19 E || −1.7 || 18.4 || 7.4 |- | [[Helsinki]] || 60 N || 25 E || −4.7 || 17.8 || 5.9 |- | [[Saint Petersburg]] || 60 N || 30 E || −5.8 || 18.8 || 5.8 |-bgcolor="000000" |colspan=6| |- | [[Edinburgh]] || 55.5 N || 3 W || 4.2 || 15.3 || 9.3 |- | [[Copenhagen]] || 55.5 N || 12 E || 1.4 || 18.1 || 9.1 |- | [[Klaipėda]] || 55.5 N || 21 E || −1.3 || 17.9 || 8.0 |- | [[Moscow]] || 55.5 N || 30 E || −6.5 || 19.2 || 5.8 |-bgcolor="000000" |colspan=6| |- | [[Isles of Scilly]] || 50 N || 6 W || 7.9 || 16.9 || 11.8 |- | [[Brussels]] || 50.5 N || 4 E || 3.3 || 18.4 || 10.5 |- | [[Kraków]] || 50 N || 20 E || −2.0 || 19.2 || 8.7 |- | [[Kyiv]] || 50.5 N || 30 E || −3.5 || 20.5 || 8.4 |-bgcolor="000000" |colspan=6| |- | [[Bordeaux]] || 45 N || 0 || 6.6 || 21.4 || 13.8 |- | [[Venice]] || 45.5 N || 12 E || 3.3 || 23.0 || 13.0 |- | [[Belgrade]] || 45 N || 20 E || 1.4 || 23.0 || 12.5 |- | [[Astrakhan]] || 46 N || 48 E || −3.7 || 25.6 || 10.5 |-bgcolor="000000" |colspan=6| |- | [[Coimbra]] || 40 N || 8 W || 9.9 || 21.9 || 16.0 |- | [[Valencia]] || 39.5 N || 0 || 11.9 || 26.1 || 18.3 |- | [[Naples]] || 40.5 N || 14 E || 8.7 || 24.9 || 15.9 |- | [[Istanbul]] || 41 N || 29 E || 5.5 || 23.4 || 13.9 |- |} <ref>Climate tables of the articles, where the precise sources can be found</ref> It is notable how the average temperatures for the coldest month, as well as the annual average temperatures, drop from the west to the east. For instance, Edinburgh is warmer than Belgrade during the coldest month of the year, although Belgrade is around 10° of latitude farther south. ===Climate change=== {{excerpt|Climate change in Europe|paragraphs=1-2}} ===Geology=== {{Main|Geology of Europe|Geological history of Europe}} [[File:Europe geological map-en.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|right|Surficial geology of Europe]] The geological history of Europe traces back to the formation of the [[Baltic Shield]] (Fennoscandia) and the [[Sarmatian craton]], both around 2.25 billion years ago, followed by the [[Volgo–Uralia]] shield, the three together leading to the [[East European craton]] (≈ [[Baltica]]) which became a part of the [[supercontinent]] [[Columbia (supercontinent)|Columbia]]. Around 1.1 billion years ago, Baltica and Arctica (as part of the [[Laurentia]] block) became joined to [[Rodinia]], later resplitting around 550 million years ago to reform as Baltica. Around 440 million years ago [[Euramerica]] was formed from Baltica and Laurentia; a further joining with [[Gondwana]] then leading to the formation of [[Pangea]]. Around 190 million years ago, Gondwana and [[Laurasia]] split apart due to the widening of the Atlantic Ocean. Finally and very soon afterwards, Laurasia itself split up again, into Laurentia (North America) and the Eurasian continent. The land connection between the two persisted for a considerable time, via [[Greenland]], leading to interchange of animal species. From around 50 million years ago, rising and falling sea levels have determined the actual shape of Europe and its connections with continents such as Asia. Europe's present shape dates to the [[late Tertiary]] period about five million years ago.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106055 |title=Europe |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |year=2007 |access-date=10 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071204015044/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106055 |archive-date=4 December 2007 }}</ref> The geology of Europe is hugely varied and complex and gives rise to the wide variety of landscapes found across the continent, from the [[Scottish Highlands]] to the rolling [[plain]]s of Hungary.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soton.ac.uk/~imw/jpg/eurogy.jpg|title=Geology map of Europe|year=1967|publisher=University of Southampton|access-date=9 June 2008|archive-date=11 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811131707/http://www.soton.ac.uk/~imw/jpg/eurogy.jpg|url-status=live}}</ref> Europe's most significant feature is the dichotomy between highland and mountainous [[Southern Europe]] and a vast, partially underwater, northern plain ranging from Ireland in the west to the [[Ural Mountains]] in the east. These two halves are separated by the mountain chains of the [[Pyrenees]] and [[Alps]]/[[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]]. The northern plains are delimited in the west by the [[Scandinavian Mountains]] and the mountainous parts of the British Isles. Major shallow water bodies submerging parts of the northern plains are the [[Celtic Sea]], the [[North Sea]], the [[Baltic Sea]] complex and [[Barents Sea]]. The northern plain contains the old geological continent of [[Baltica]] and so may be regarded geologically as the "main continent", while peripheral highlands and mountainous regions in the south and west constitute fragments from various other geological continents. Most of the older geology of western Europe existed as part of the ancient [[microcontinent]] [[Avalonia]]. ===Flora=== [[File:Europe land use map.png|thumb|upright=1.2|left|Land use map of Europe with arable farmland (yellow), forest (dark green), pasture (light green) and tundra, or bogs, in the north (dark yellow)]] Having lived side by side with agricultural peoples for millennia, Europe's animals and plants have been profoundly affected by the presence and activities of humans. With the exception of [[Fennoscandia]] and northern Russia, few areas of untouched wilderness are currently found in Europe, except for various [[national park]]s. The main natural vegetation cover in Europe is mixed [[forest]]. The conditions for growth are very favourable. In the north, the [[Gulf Stream]] and [[North Atlantic Current|North Atlantic Drift]] warm the continent. Southern Europe has a warm but mild climate. There are frequent summer droughts in this region. Mountain ridges also affect the conditions. Some of these, such as the [[Alps]] and the [[Pyrenees]], are oriented east–west and allow the wind to carry large masses of water from the ocean in the interior. Others are oriented south–north ([[Scandinavian Mountains]], [[Dinaric Alps|Dinarides]], [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]], [[Apennine Mountains|Apennines]]) and because the rain falls primarily on the side of mountains that is oriented towards the sea, forests grow well on this side, while on the other side, the conditions are much less favourable. Few corners of mainland Europe have not been grazed by [[livestock]] at some point in time, and the cutting down of the preagricultural forest habitat caused disruption to the original plant and animal ecosystems. [[File:Floristic regions in Europe (english).png|upright=1.2|thumb|Floristic regions of Europe and neighbouring areas, according to Wolfgang Frey and Rainer Lösch]] Possibly 80 to 90 percent of Europe was once covered by forest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saveamericasforests.org/europages/history&geography.htm|title=History and geography|publisher=Save America's Forest Funds|access-date=9 June 2008|archive-date=6 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006131242/http://www.saveamericasforests.org/europages/history%26geography.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> It stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Arctic Ocean. Although over half of Europe's original forests disappeared through the centuries of [[deforestation]], Europe still has over one quarter of its land area as forest, such as the [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest|broadleaf and mixed]] forests, [[taiga]] of Scandinavia and Russia, mixed [[rainforest]]s of the Caucasus and the [[Cork oak]] forests in the western Mediterranean. During recent times, deforestation has been slowed and many trees have been planted. However, in many cases monoculture [[plantation]]s of [[Pinophyta|conifers]] have replaced the original mixed natural forest, because these grow quicker. The plantations now cover vast areas of land, but offer poorer habitats for many European forest dwelling species which require a mixture of tree species and diverse forest structure. The amount of natural forest in Western Europe is just 2–3% or less, while in its Western Russia its 5–10%. The European country with the [[List of countries by forest area|smallest percentage of forested area]] is [[Iceland]] (1%), while the most forested country is Finland (77%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mcpfe.net/system/files/u1/publications/pdf/state_of_europes_forests_2007.pdf |title=State of Europe's Forests 2007: The MCPFE report on sustainable forest management in Europe |publisher=EFI Euroforest Portal |page=182 |access-date=9 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624190612/http://www.mcpfe.net/system/files/u1/publications/pdf/state_of_europes_forests_2007.pdf |archive-date=24 June 2008 }}</ref> In temperate Europe, mixed forest with both [[flowering plant|broadleaf]] and coniferous trees dominate. The most important species in central and western Europe are [[beech]] and [[oak]]. In the north, the taiga is a mixed [[spruce]]–[[pine]]–[[birch]] forest; further north within Russia and extreme northern Scandinavia, the taiga gives way to [[tundra]] as the Arctic is approached. In the Mediterranean, many [[olive]] trees have been planted, which are very well adapted to its arid climate; [[Cupressus sempervirens|Mediterranean Cypress]] is also widely planted in southern Europe. The semi-arid Mediterranean region hosts much scrub forest. A narrow east–west tongue of Eurasian [[grassland]] (the [[steppe]]) extends westwards from [[Ukraine]] and southern Russia and ends in Hungary and traverses into taiga to the north. ===Fauna=== {{main|Fauna of Europe}} [[File:Europe biogeography countries.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|[[Biogeography|Biogeographic regions]] of Europe and bordering regions]] Glaciation during the [[Quaternary glaciation|most recent ice age]] and the presence of humans affected the distribution of [[Fauna of Europe|European fauna]]. As for the animals, in many parts of Europe most large animals and top [[predator]] species have been hunted to extinction. The [[woolly mammoth]] was extinct before the end of the [[Neolithic]] period. Today [[wolf|wolves]] ([[carnivore]]s) and [[bear]]s ([[omnivore]]s) are endangered. Once they were found in most parts of Europe. However, deforestation and hunting caused these animals to withdraw further and further. By the Middle Ages the bears' habitats were limited to more or less inaccessible mountains with sufficient forest cover. Today, the [[European brown bear|brown bear]] lives primarily in the [[Balkan|Balkan peninsula]], Scandinavia and Russia; a small number also persist in other countries across Europe (Austria, Pyrenees etc.), but in these areas brown bear populations are fragmented and marginalised because of the destruction of their habitat. In addition, [[polar bear]]s may be found on [[Svalbard]], a Norwegian archipelago far north of Scandinavia. The [[Eurasian wolf|wolf]], the second-largest predator in Europe after the brown bear, can be found primarily in [[Central and Eastern Europe]] and in the Balkans, with a handful of packs in pockets of [[Western Europe]] (Scandinavia, Spain, etc.). [[File:Neandertal - Wisent.jpg|thumb|right|Once roaming the great temperate forests of Eurasia, [[European bison]] now live in nature preserves in [[Białowieża Forest]], on the border between [[Poland]] and [[Belarus]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ultimateungulate.com/artiodactyla/bison_bonasus.html|title=European bison, Wisent|access-date=19 January 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226095419/http://www.ultimateungulate.com/artiodactyla/bison_bonasus.html|archive-date=26 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8182000/8182104.stm | work=BBC News | first=Matt | last=Walker | title=European bison on 'genetic brink' | date=4 August 2009 | access-date=30 July 2022 | archive-date=6 July 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706045354/http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8182000/8182104.stm | url-status=live }}</ref>]] Other carnivores include the [[European wildcat]], [[red fox]] and [[arctic fox]], the [[golden jackal]], different species of [[marten]]s, the [[European hedgehog]], different species of reptiles (like snakes such as vipers and grass snakes) and amphibians, as well as different birds ([[owl]]s, [[hawk]]s and other birds of prey). Important European herbivores are snails, larvae, fish, different birds and mammals, like rodents, deer and roe deer, boars and living in the mountains, marmots, steinbocks, chamois among others. A number of insects, such as the [[small tortoiseshell]] butterfly, add to the biodiversity.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bryant | first1 = S. | last2 = Thomas | first2 = C. | last3 = Bale | first3 = J. | year = 1997 | title = Nettle-feeding nymphalid butterflies: temperature, development and distribution | journal = Ecological Entomology | volume = 22 | issue = 4| pages = 390–398 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2311.1997.00082.x | bibcode = 1997EcoEn..22..390B | s2cid = 84143178 }}</ref> Sea creatures are also an important part of European flora and fauna. The sea flora is mainly [[phytoplankton]]. Important animals that live in European seas are [[zooplankton]], [[mollusc]]s, [[echinoderm]]s, different [[crustacean]]s, [[squid]]s and [[octopuses]], fish, [[dolphin]]s and [[whales]]. Biodiversity is protected in Europe through the Council of Europe's [[Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats|Bern Convention]], which has also been signed by the [[European Community]] as well as non-European states. {{anchor|Political geography}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page