Europe Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ===20th century to the present=== {{Main|Modern era|History of Europe}} {{See also|World War I|Great Depression|Interwar period|Second World War|Cold War|History of the European Union}} [[File:Colonisation 1914.png|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Map of European [[colonial empire]]s throughout the world in 1914]] Two world wars and an economic depression dominated the first half of the 20th century. The First World War was fought between 1914 and 1918. It started when [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria]] was assassinated by the [[Yugoslav nationalism|Yugoslav nationalist]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://praguepost.com/world-news/39837-assassin-gavrilo-princip-gets-a-statue-in-sarajevo|title=Assassin Gavrilo Princip gets a statue in Sarajevo|access-date=11 July 2014|publisher=Prague Post|date=28 June 2014|archive-date=10 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140710215557/http://praguepost.com/world-news/39837-assassin-gavrilo-princip-gets-a-statue-in-sarajevo|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Gavrilo Princip]].<ref name="natgeo 407">National Geographic, 407.</ref> Most European nations were drawn into the war, which was fought between the [[Entente Powers]] ([[French Third Republic|France]], [[Belgium]], [[Serbia]], Portugal, [[Russian Empire|Russia]], the United Kingdom, and later [[Italy]], [[Greece]], [[Romania]], and the United States) and the [[Central Powers]] ([[Austria-Hungary]], [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Bulgaria]], and the [[Ottoman Empire]]). The war left more than 16 million civilians and military dead.<ref name="natgeo 440">''National Geographic'', 440.</ref> Over 60 million European soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jimmyatkinson.com/papers/versaillestreaty.html |title=The Treaty of Versailles and its Consequences |access-date=10 June 2008 |publisher=James Atkinson |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512224100/http://www.jimmyatkinson.com/papers/versaillestreaty.html |archive-date=12 May 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Alliances militaires en Europe 1914-1918-fr.svg|thumb|Map depicting the military alliances of the [[First World War]] in 1914–1918]] Russia was plunged into the [[Russian Revolution]], which threw down the [[Russian Empire|Tsarist monarchy]] and replaced it with the [[communist]] [[Soviet Union]],<ref name="natgeo 480">National Geographic, 480.</ref> leading also to the independence of many former [[Governorate (Russia)|Russian governorates]], such as [[Finland]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]], as new European countries.<ref>{{cite book|author=Heinrich August Winkler|title=The Age of Catastrophe|chapter=The Struggle for Independence: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland|page=110|year=2015|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300204896}}</ref> [[Austria-Hungary]] and the Ottoman Empire collapsed and broke up into separate nations, and many other nations had their borders redrawn. The [[Treaty of Versailles]], which officially ended the First World War in 1919, was harsh towards Germany, upon whom it placed full responsibility for the war and imposed heavy sanctions.<ref name="natgeo 443">''National Geographic'', 443.</ref> Excess deaths in Russia over the course of the First World War and the [[Russian Civil War]] (including the postwar [[Russian famine of 1921|famine]]) amounted to a combined total of 18 million.<ref>{{cite book| first = Mark| last = Harrison| title = Accounting for War: Soviet Production, Employment, and the Defence Burden, 1940–1945| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yJcD7_Q_rQ8C&pg=PA167| date = 2002| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-89424-1| page = 167| access-date = 30 July 2022| archive-date = 17 June 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200617211223/https://books.google.com/books?id=yJcD7_Q_rQ8C&pg=PA167| url-status = live}}</ref> In 1932–1933, under [[Stalin]]'s leadership, confiscations of grain by the Soviet authorities contributed to the [[Soviet famine of 1932-1933|second Soviet famine]] which caused millions of deaths;<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6179818.stm Legacy of famine divides Ukraine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061127110530/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6179818.stm |date=2006-11-27 }}". BBC News. 24 November 2006.</ref> surviving [[kulak]]s were persecuted and many sent to [[Gulag]]s to do [[Unfree labour|forced labour]]. Stalin was also responsible for the [[Great Purge]] of 1937–38 in which the [[NKVD]] executed 681,692 people;<ref>{{cite book| first = Abbott| last = Gleason| title = A companion to Russian history| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373| year = 2009| publisher = Wiley-Blackwell| isbn = 978-1-4051-3560-3| page = 373| access-date = 30 July 2022| archive-date = 5 September 2015| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150905175409/https://books.google.com/books?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373| url-status = live}}</ref> millions of people were [[population transfer in the Soviet Union|deported and exiled]] to remote areas of the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book | first = Geoffrey A.| last = Hosking| title = Russia and the Russians: a history| url = https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi00hosk| url-access = registration| year = 2001| publisher = Harvard University Press| isbn = 978-0-674-00473-3| page = [https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi00hosk/page/469 469] }}</ref> [[File:Serbiancolumnretreat1915.jpg|thumb|left|[[Serbian Campaign of World War I|Serbian war efforts]] (1914–1918) cost the country one quarter of its population.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/116535884/fourth-of-serbias-population-dead/ |title=Fourth of Serbia's Population Dead |first=Pierre |last=Loti |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |page=49 |date=1918-06-30 |access-date=2023-01-15 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/04/05/102687236.pdf|title=Asserts Serbians Face Extinction; Their Plight in Occupied Districts Worse Than Belgians', Says Labor Envoy |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |location=Washington |page=13 |access-date=2023-01-15|archive-date=15 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200315165925/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/04/05/102687236.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/11/05/98273895.pdf|title=Serbia Restored|access-date=19 January 2017|archive-date=16 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916183845/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/11/05/98273895.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/07/28/102728073.pdf| work=New York Times| title=Serbia and Austria| date=28 July 1918| access-date=30 July 2022| archive-date=22 April 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422071451/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/07/28/102728073.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/07/27/102727338.pdf| work=New York Times| title=Appeals to Americans to pray for Serbians| date=27 July 1918| access-date=30 July 2022| archive-date=16 September 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916183729/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/07/27/102727338.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref>]] [[File:Mussolini and Hitler 1940 (retouched).jpg|upright=0.75|thumb|left|[[Nazi Germany]] began the devastating Second World War in Europe by its leader, [[Adolf Hitler]]. Here Hitler, on the right, with his closest ally, the Italian dictator [[Benito Mussolini]], in 1940.]] The [[social revolution]]s sweeping through Russia also affected other European nations following [[The Great War]]: in 1919, with the [[Weimar Republic]] in Germany and the [[First Austrian Republic]]; in 1922, with [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]]'s one-party [[Fascism|fascist]] government in the [[Kingdom of Italy]] and in [[Atatürk]]'s [[Turkey|Turkish Republic]], adopting the Western alphabet and state [[secularism]]. Economic instability, caused in part by debts incurred in the First World War and 'loans' to Germany played havoc in Europe in the late 1920s and 1930s. This, and the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929]], brought about the worldwide [[Great Depression]]. Helped by the economic crisis, social instability and the threat of communism, [[Fascism|fascist movements]] developed throughout Europe placing [[Adolf Hitler]] in power of what became [[Nazi Germany]].<ref name="hobsbawn">{{Cite book|last=Hobsbawm|first=Eric|publisher=Vintage|year=1995|isbn=978-0-679-73005-7|title=The Age of Extremes: A history of the world, 1914–1991|url=https://archive.org/details/ageofextremeshis00hobs_0}}</ref><ref name="natgeo 438">''National Geographic'', 438.</ref> In 1933, Hitler became the leader of Germany and began to work towards his goal of building Greater Germany. Germany re-expanded and took back the [[Saarland]] and [[Rhineland]] in 1935 and 1936. In 1938, [[Austria]] became a part of Germany following the [[Anschluss]]. Later that year, following the [[Munich Agreement]] signed by Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and Italy, Germany annexed the [[Sudetenland]], which was a part of [[Czechoslovakia]] inhabited by ethnic Germans, and in early 1939, the remainder of Czechoslovakia was split into the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]], controlled by Germany and the [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovak Republic]]. At the time, the United Kingdom and France preferred a policy of [[appeasement]]. With tensions mounting between Germany and [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]] over the future of [[Gdańsk|Danzig]], the Germans turned to the Soviets and signed the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]], which allowed the Soviets to invade the Baltic states and parts of Poland and Romania. Germany [[Invasion of Poland|invaded Poland]] on 1 September 1939, prompting France and the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany on 3 September, opening the [[European Theatre of World War II|European Theatre of the Second World War]].<ref name="reich">{{cite web|url=https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/adolf-hitler-1|title=Adolf Hitler: Rise of Power, Impact & Death|website=History.com|access-date=26 July 2020|archive-date=3 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003111423/https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/adolf-hitler-1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natgeo 465">National Geographic, 465.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=A. J. P.|title= The Origins of the Second World War|year=1996|publisher=Simon & Schuster| isbn=978-0-684-82947-0}}</ref> The [[Soviet invasion of Poland]] started on 17 September and Poland fell soon thereafter. On 24 September, the Soviet Union attacked the [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|Baltic countries]] and, on 30 November, Finland, the latter of which was followed by the devastating [[Winter War]] for the Red Army.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/winter-war-finland.html|title=The Winter War – When the Finns Humiliated the Russians|first=Ivano|last=Massari|publisher=War History Online|date=18 August 2015|access-date=19 December 2021|archive-date=19 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219185618/https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/winter-war-finland.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The British hoped to land at [[Battles of Narvik|Narvik]] and send troops to aid Finland, but their primary objective in the landing was to encircle Germany and cut the Germans off from Scandinavian resources. Around the same time, Germany moved troops into Denmark. The [[Phoney War]] continued. In May 1940, Germany [[Battle of France|attacked France]] through the Low Countries. France capitulated in June 1940. By August, Germany had begun a [[Battle of Britain|bombing offensive against the United Kingdom]] but failed to convince the Britons to give up.<ref name="natgeo 510">''National Geographic'', 510.</ref> In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in [[Operation Barbarossa]].<ref name="natgeo 532">''National Geographic'', 532.</ref> On 7 December 1941 [[Empire of Japan|Japan]]'s [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] drew the United States into the conflict as allies of the [[British Empire]], and other [[Allies of World War II|allied]] forces.<ref name="natgeo 511">''National Geographic'', 511.</ref><ref name="natgeo 519">''National Geographic'', 519.</ref> [[File:Yalta Conference (Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin) (B&W).jpg|thumb|The "[[Allies of World War II|Big Three]]" at the [[Yalta Conference]] in 1945; seated (from the left): [[Winston Churchill]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Joseph Stalin]]]] After the staggering [[Battle of Stalingrad]] in 1943, the German offensive in the Soviet Union turned into a continual fallback. The [[Battle of Kursk]], which involved the largest [[Battle of Prokhorovka|tank battle]] in history, was the last major German offensive on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]]. In June 1944, British and American forces invaded France in the [[Normandy landings|D-Day landings]], opening a new front against Germany. Berlin finally [[Battle of Berlin|fell in 1945]], ending the Second World War in Europe. The war was the largest and most destructive in human history, with [[World War II casualties|60 million dead across the world]].<ref name="natgeo 439">''National Geographic'', 439.</ref> More than 40 million people in Europe had died as a result of the Second World War,<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4526351.stm Europe honours war dead on VE Day] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180316120653/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4526351.stm |date=2018-03-16 }}". ''BBC News''. 9 May 2005.</ref> including between 11 and 17 million people who perished during [[the Holocaust]].<ref>Niewyk, Donald L. and Nicosia, Francis R. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lpDTIUklB2MC&pg=PP1 The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521005722/https://books.google.com/books?id=lpDTIUklB2MC&pg=PP1#PPA45,M1 |date=21 May 2022 }}'', [[Columbia University Press]], 2000, pp. 45–52.</ref> The Soviet Union [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|lost around 27 million people]] (mostly civilians) during the war, about half of all Second World War casualties.<ref>{{Cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4530565.stm | title=Leaders mourn Soviet wartime dead | work=BBC News | date=9 May 2005 | access-date=4 January 2010 | archive-date=22 December 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222043852/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4530565.stm | url-status=live }}</ref> By the end of the Second World War, Europe had more than 40 million [[refugee]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.unhcr.org/3ebf9ba80.html |title=The State of The World's Refugees 2000: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |pages=13 |language=en |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=23 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423195513/https://www.unhcr.org/3ebf9ba80.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bundy |first=Colin |date=2016 |title=Migrants, refugees, history and precedents {{!}} Forced Migration Review |url=https://www.fmreview.org/destination-europe/bundy |access-date=9 March 2022 |website=www.fmreview.org |archive-date=8 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308162932/https://www.fmreview.org/destination-europe/bundy |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20110424085534/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,920455-2,00.html Refugees: Save Us! Save Us!]". ''Time''. 9 July 1979.</ref> Several [[World War II evacuation and expulsion|post-war expulsions]] in Central and Eastern Europe displaced a total of about 20 million people.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schechtman|first=Joseph B.|date=1953|title=Postwar Population Transfers in Europe: A Survey|journal=The Review of Politics|volume=15|issue=2|pages=151–178|jstor=1405220|doi=10.1017/s0034670500008081|s2cid=144307581 }}</ref> The First World War, and especially the Second World War, diminished the eminence of Western Europe in world affairs. After the Second World War the map of Europe was redrawn at the [[Yalta Conference]] and divided into two blocs, the Western countries and the communist Eastern bloc, separated by what was later called by [[Winston Churchill]] an "[[Iron Curtain]]". The United States and Western Europe established the [[NATO]] alliance and, later, the Soviet Union and Central Europe established the [[Warsaw Pact]].<ref name="natgeo 530">National Geographic, 530.</ref> Particular hot spots after the Second World War were [[Berlin]] and [[Trieste]], whereby the [[Free Territory of Trieste]], founded in 1947 with the UN, was dissolved in 1954 and 1975, respectively. The [[Berlin blockade]] in 1948 and 1949 and the construction of the [[Berlin Wall]] in 1961 were one of the great international crises of the [[Cold War]].<ref>Jessica Caus "Am Checkpoint Charlie lebt der Kalte Krieg" In: Die Welt 4 August 2015.</ref><ref>Karlo Ruzicic-Kessler "Togliatti, Tito and the Shadow of Moscow 1944/45–1948: Post-War Territorial Disputes and the Communist World", In: Journal of European Integration History, (2/2014).</ref><ref>Christian Jennings "Flashpoint Trieste: The First Battle of the Cold War", (2017), pp 244.</ref> The two new [[superpower]]s, the United States and the Soviet Union, became locked in a fifty-year-long Cold War, centred on [[nuclear proliferation]]. At the same time [[decolonisation]], which had already started after the First World War, gradually resulted in the independence of most of the European colonies in Asia and Africa.<ref name="natgeo 534"/> [[File:Flag_of_Europe.svg|thumb|[[Flag of Europe]], adopted by the [[Council of Europe]] in 1955 as the flag for the whole of Europe<ref>[http://www.coe.int/en/web/about-us/the-european-flag The European flag] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114105640/https://www.coe.int/en/web/about-us/the-european-flag |date=14 January 2022 }}, Council of Europe. Retrieved 27 October 2016.</ref>]] In the 1980s the [[glasnost|reforms]] of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] and the [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] movement in Poland weakened the previously rigid communist system. The opening of the [[Iron Curtain]] at the [[Pan-European Picnic]] then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which the [[Eastern bloc]], the [[Warsaw Pact]] and other [[Revolutions of 1989|communist states collapsed]], and the Cold War ended.<ref>Thomas Roser: DDR-Massenflucht: Ein Picknick hebt die Welt aus den Angeln (German – Mass exodus of the GDR: A picnic clears the world) In: Die Presse 16 August 2018.</ref><ref>Der 19. August 1989 war ein Test für Gorbatschows" (German – August 19, 1989 was a test for Gorbachev), In: FAZ 19 August 2009.</ref><ref>Michael Frank: Paneuropäisches Picknick – Mit dem Picknickkorb in die Freiheit (German: Pan-European picnic – With the picnic basket to freedom), in: Süddeutsche Zeitung 17 May 2010.</ref> Germany was reunited, after the symbolic [[Berlin Wall#Fall of the Wall|fall of the Berlin Wall]] in 1989 and the maps of Central and Eastern Europe were redrawn once more.<ref>Andreas Rödder, Deutschland einig Vaterland – Die Geschichte der Wiedervereinigung (2009).</ref> This made old previously interrupted cultural and economic relationships possible, and previously isolated cities such as [[Berlin]], [[Prague]], [[Vienna]], [[Budapest]] and [[Trieste]] were now again in the centre of Europe.<ref name="hobsbawn"/><ref>Padraic Kenney "A Carnival of Revolution: Central Europe 1989" (2002) pp 109.</ref><ref>Michael Gehler "Der alte und der neue Kalte Krieg in Europa" In: Die Presse 19.11.2015.</ref><ref>Robert Stradling "Teaching 20th-century European history" (2003), pp 61.</ref> [[European integration]] also grew after the Second World War. In 1949 the [[Council of Europe]] was founded, following a speech by Sir [[Winston Churchill]], with the idea of unifying Europe<ref name="europaeu 1945-59"/> to achieve common goals. It includes all European states except for [[Belarus]], [[Russia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/03/10/russia-quits-europes-rule-of-law-body-sparking-questions-over-death-penalty-a76854|title=Russia Quits Europe's Rule of Law Body, Sparking Questions Over Death Penalty|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|date=10 March 2022|access-date=12 March 2022|archive-date=12 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220312015058/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/03/10/russia-quits-europes-rule-of-law-body-sparking-questions-over-death-penalty-a76854|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Vatican City]]. The [[Treaty of Rome]] in 1957 established the [[European Economic Community]] between six Western European states with the goal of a unified economic policy and common market.<ref name="natgeo 536">National Geographic, 536.</ref> In 1967 the EEC, [[European Coal and Steel Community]], and [[Euratom]] formed the [[European Community]], which in 1993 became the [[European Union]]. The EU established a [[European Parliament|parliament]], [[European Court of Justice|court]] and [[European Central Bank|central bank]], and introduced the [[euro]] as a unified currency.<ref name="natgeo 537">National Geographic, 537.</ref> Between 2004 and 2013, more Central European countries began joining, [[Enlargement of the European Union|expanding the EU]] to 28 European countries and once more making Europe a major economical and political centre of power.<ref name="natgeo 535">National Geographic, 535.</ref> However, the United Kingdom withdrew from the EU on 31 January 2020, as a result of a [[2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|June 2016 referendum on EU membership]].<ref>{{cite news |title=UK leaves the European Union |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-51333314 |access-date=16 July 2020 |work=BBC News |date=1 February 2020 |archive-date=14 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314050137/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-51333314 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Russo-Ukrainian War|Russo-Ukrainian conflict]], which has been ongoing since 2014, steeply escalated when Russia launched a [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|full-scale invasion]] of [[Ukraine]] on 24 February 2022, marking the largest humanitarian and refugee crisis in Europe since the Second World War<ref>{{cite news |title=Ukrainian exodus could be Europe's biggest refugee crisis since World War II |newspaper=[[El Pais]] |date=3 March 2022 |url=https://english.elpais.com/international/2022-03-03/ukrainian-exodus-could-be-europes-biggest-refugee-crisis-since-world-war-ii.html |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405100721/https://english.elpais.com/international/2022-03-03/ukrainian-exodus-could-be-europes-biggest-refugee-crisis-since-world-war-ii.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Yugoslav Wars]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Protecting Ukrainian refugees: What can we learn from the response to Kosovo in the 90s? |date=7 March 2022 |access-date=29 March 2022 |website=[[British Future]] |url=https://www.britishfuture.org/protecting-ukrainian-refugees-what-can-we-learn-from-kosovo/ |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307205755/https://www.britishfuture.org/protecting-ukrainian-refugees-what-can-we-learn-from-kosovo/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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