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Do not fill this in! ===Eastern Asia=== ====Chinese religion==== {{Main|Shangdi|Tian|Mohism}} [[File:天-bronze-shang.svg|thumb|upright|[[Shang Dynasty]] [[bronze script]] character for ''tian'' (天), which translates to Heaven and sky]] The orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of [[China]] since at least the [[Shang Dynasty]] (1766 BCE) until the modern period centered on the worship of ''[[Shangdi]]'' (literally "Above Sovereign", generally translated as "High-god") or [[Tian|Heaven]] as a supreme being, standing above other gods.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Dubs|first=Homer H.|date=1959|title=Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese Philosophy|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397096|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=9|issue=3/4|pages=163–172|doi=10.2307/1397096|jstor=1397096|issn=0031-8221|quote="It does not necessarily imply monotheism, however, since, in addition to the Supreme High-god or Heaven, there were also the ordinary gods (shen) and the ancestral spirits (guei), all of whom were worshipped in the Jou royal cult."|access-date=2022-02-20|archive-date=2022-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220041158/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397096|url-status=live}}</ref> This faith system pre-dated the development of [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]] and the introduction of [[Buddhism]] and [[Christianity]]. It has some features of monotheism in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotent entity, a [[Incorporeality|noncorporeal]] force with a [[personal god|personality]] [[transcendent reality|transcending]] the world. However, this faith system was not truly monotheistic since other lesser gods and spirits, which varied with locality, were also worshiped along with ''Shangdi''.<ref name=":1" /> Still, later variants such as [[Mohism]] (470 BCE–c.391 BCE) approached true monotheism, teaching that the function of lesser gods and ancestral spirits is merely to carry out the will of ''Shangdi.'' In [[Mozi]]'s ''Will of Heaven'' (天志), he writes: {{blockquote|I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons, Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer, to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow the five grains and flax and silk that so the people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines and valleys, and arranged many things to minister to man's good or bring him evil. He appointed the dukes and lords to reward the virtuous and punish the wicked, and to gather metal and wood, birds and beasts, and to engage in cultivating the five grains and flax and silk to provide for the people's food and clothing. This has been so from antiquity to the present. 且吾所以知天之愛民之厚者有矣,曰以磨為日月星辰,以昭道之;制為四時春秋冬夏,以紀綱之;雷降雪霜雨露,以長遂五穀麻絲,使民得而財利之;列為山川谿谷,播賦百事,以臨司民之善否;為王公侯伯,使之賞賢而罰暴;賊金木鳥獸,從事乎五穀麻絲,以為民衣食之財。自古及今,未嘗不有此也。 |''Will of Heaven'', Chapter 27, Paragraph 6, ca. 5th century BCE}} Worship of ''Shangdi'' and Heaven in ancient China includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the [[Temple of Heaven]] in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to ''Shangdi'', usually by slaughtering a completely healthy bull as sacrifice. Although its popularity gradually diminished after the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, among other religions, its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-modern period and have been incorporated in later religions in China, including terminology used by early Christians in China. Despite the rising of non-theistic and pantheistic spirituality contributed by Taoism and Buddhism, Shangdi was still praised up until the end of the [[Qing Dynasty]] as the last ruler of the Qing declared himself [[son of heaven]]. In the 19th century in the [[Guangdong]] region, monotheist influences led to the [[Taiping Rebellion]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chang |first=Iris |title=The Chinese in America: A Narrative History |publisher=[[Viking Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-670-03123-8 |location=New York |pages=30–31 |author-link=Iris Chang}}</ref> ====Tengrism==== {{See also|Tengrism}} Tengrism or Tangrism (sometimes stylized as Tengriism), occasionally referred to as Tengrianism<!-- Do not put non-English translations on the English Wikipedia page -->, is a modern term<ref>The spelling ''Tengrism'' is found in the 1960s, e.g. Bergounioux (ed.), ''Primitive and prehistoric religions'', Volume 140, Hawthorn Books, 1966, p. 80. ''Tengrianism'' is a reflection of the Russian term, {{lang|ru|Тенгрианство}}. It is reported in 1996 ("so-called Tengrianism") in Shnirelʹman (ed.), ''Who gets the past?: competition for ancestors among non-Russian intellectuals in Russia'', Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1996, {{ISBN|978-0-8018-5221-3}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4iwHp8asmsdEC&pg=PA31 p. 31] in the context of the nationalist rivalry over [[Bulgars#Legacy|Bulgar legacy]]. The spellings ''Tengriism'' and ''Tengrianity'' are later, reported (deprecatingly, in scare quotes) in 2004 in ''Central Asiatic journal'', vol. 48-49 (2004), [https://books.google.com/books?id=GeRVAAAAYAAJ&q=Tengriism p. 238] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164813/https://books.google.com/books?id=GeRVAAAAYAAJ&q=Tengriism |date=2023-03-26 }}. The Turkish term {{lang|tr|Tengricilik}} is also found from the 1990s. Mongolian {{lang|mn|Тэнгэр шүтлэг}} is used in a 1999 biography of [[Genghis Khan]] (Boldbaatar et al., {{lang|mn|Чингис хаан, 1162-1227}}, {{lang|mn| Хаадын сан}}, 1999, [https://books.google.com/books?id=OMIMAQAAMAAJ&q=%22%D0%A2%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%8D%D1%80+%D1%88%D2%AF%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%B3%22 p. 18] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420034412/https://books.google.com/books?id=OMIMAQAAMAAJ&q=%22%D0%A2%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%8D%D1%80+%D1%88%D2%AF%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%B3%22 |date=2023-04-20 }}).</ref> for a [[Central Asia]]n [[Central Asia#Religions|religion]] characterized by features of [[shamanism]], [[animism]], [[totemism]], both [[polytheism]] and monotheism,<ref>R. Meserve, Religions in the central Asian environment. In: [http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001204/120455e.pdf History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume IV] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221846/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001204/120455e.pdf |date=2016-03-03 }}, The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century, Part Two: The achievements, p. 68: * "''[...] The 'imperial' religion was more monotheistic, centred around the all-powerful god Tengri, the sky god.''"</ref><ref name="PolyMono">Michael Fergus, Janar Jandosova, [https://books.google.com/books?id=jAu9ttUqiJoC Kazakhstan: Coming of Age], Stacey International, 2003, p.91: * "''[...] a profound combination of monotheism and polytheism that has come to be known as Tengrism.''"</ref><ref>H. B. Paksoy, [http://historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?action=read&artid=783 Tengri in Eurasia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911134633/http://historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?action=read&artid=783 |date=2017-09-11 }}, 2008</ref><ref>Napil Bazylkhan, Kenje Torlanbaeva in: [https://books.google.com/books?id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ Central Eurasian Studies Society], Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, p.40</ref> and [[ancestor worship]]. Historically, it was the prevailing religion of the [[Bulgars]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], [[Mongols]], and [[Hungarians]], as well as the [[Xiongnu]] and the [[Huns]].<ref>"There is no doubt that between the 6th and 9th centuries Tengrism was the religion among the nomads of the steppes" Yazar András Róna-Tas, ''Hungarians and Europe in the early Middle Ages: an introduction to early Hungarian history'', Yayıncı Central European University Press, 1999, {{ISBN|978-963-9116-48-1}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=I-RTt0Q6AcYC&dq=hungarians+tengrism&pg=PA151 p. 151] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406145756/https://books.google.com/books?id=I-RTt0Q6AcYC&dq=hungarians+tengrism&pg=PA151 |date=2023-04-06 }}.</ref><ref name="Books.google.com">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I-RTt0Q6AcYC&q=huns+tengrism&pg=PA151 |title=Hungarians & Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early ... - András Róna-Tas - Google Kitaplar |access-date=2013-02-19|isbn=9789639116481 |last1=Rona-Tas |first1=Andras |last2=András |first2=Róna-Tas |date=March 1999 |publisher=Central European University Press }}</ref> It was the state religion of the six ancient Turkic states: [[Avar Khaganate]], [[Great Bulgaria|Old Great Bulgaria]], [[First Bulgarian Empire]], [[Göktürks|Göktürks Khaganate]], [[Khazaria|Eastern Tourkia]] and [[Western Turkic Khaganate]]. In ''[[Irk Bitig]]'', Tengri is mentioned as ''Türük Tängrisi'' (God of Turks).<ref>Jean-Paul Roux, Die alttürkische Mythologie, p. 255</ref> The term is perceived among [[Turkic peoples]] as a ''national'' religion. In [[Chinese folk religion|Chinese]] and [[Tengriism|Turco-Mongol]] traditions, the Supreme God is commonly referred to as the ruler of Heaven, or the Sky Lord granted with omnipotent powers, but it has largely diminished in those regions due to [[ancestor worship]], [[Taoism]]'s [[pantheistic]] views and Buddhism's [[Creator in Buddhism|rejection of a creator God]]. On some occasions in the mythology, the Sky Lord as identified as a male has been associated to mate with an Earth Mother, while some traditions kept the omnipotence of the Sky Lord unshared.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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