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Do not fill this in! == Nations == === Roman Empire to Early Middle Ages (1 to 800) === {{Main|Early Christianity|Historiography of the Christianization of the Roman Empire|Christianization of the Roman Empire as diffusion of innovation}} {{See also|Early centers of Christianity#Rome}} ==== Christianization without coercion ==== {{Main|Persecution of Christians}} There is agreement among twenty-first century scholars that Christianization of the Roman Empire in its first three centuries did not happen by imposition.{{sfn|Runciman|2004|p=6}} Christianization emerged naturally as the cumulative result of multiple individual decisions and behaviors.{{sfn|Collar|2013|p=6}} [[File:Distribution of the documented presence of Christian congregations in the first three centuries.tif|upright=1.5|thumb|Map of the Roman empire with distribution of Christian congregations in first three centuries|alt=this is a map showing how and where congregations formed in the first three centuries]] While enduring three centuries of on-again, off-again persecution, from differing levels of government ranging from local to imperial, Christianity had remained 'self-organized' and without central authority.{{sfn|Collar|2013|pp=6, 36, 39}} In this manner, it reached an important [[Threshold model|threshold of success]] between 150 and 250, when it moved from less than 50,000 adherents to over a million, and became self-sustaining and able to generate further growth.{{sfn|Collar|2013|p=325}}{{sfn|Harnett|2017|pp=200, 217}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1998|p=193}}{{sfn|Runciman|2004|page=3}} There was a significant rise in the absolute number of Christians in the third century.{{sfn|Runciman|2004|p=4}} ==== Constantine and the goal of Christianization==== {{main|Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire}} The Christianization of the [[Roman Empire]] is frequently divided by scholars into the two phases of before and after the conversion of [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] in 312.{{sfn|Siecienski|2017|p=3}}{{refn|group=note|There have, historically, been many different scholarly views on Constantine's religious policies.{{sfn|Drake|1995|pp=2, 15}} For example [[Jacob Burckhardt]] has characterized Constantine as being "essentially unreligious" and as using the Church solely to support his power and ambition. Drake asserts, "critical reaction against Burckhardt's anachronistic reading has been decisive".{{sfn|Drake|1995|pp=1, 2}} According to Burckhardt, being Christian automatically meant being intolerant, while Drake says that assumes a uniformity of belief within Christianity that does not exist in the historical record.{{sfn|Drake|1995|p=3}}{{paragraph break}} Brown calls Constantine's conversion a "very Roman conversion".{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=61}} "He had risen to power in a series of deathly civil wars, destroyed the system of divided empire, believed the Christian God had brought him victory, and therefore regarded that god as the proper recipient of religio".{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=61}} Brown says Constantine was over 40, had most likely been a traditional polytheist, and was a savvy and ruthless politician when he declared himself a Christian.{{sfn|Brown|2012|pp=60–61}} }} Constantine did not support the suppression of paganism by force.{{sfn|Leithart|2010|p=302}}{{sfn|Wiemer|1994|p=523}}{{sfn|Drake|1995|pp=7–9}}{{sfn|Bradbury|1994|pp=122–126}} He never engaged in a [[purge]],{{sfn|Leithart|2010|p=304}} and there were no pagan martyrs during his reign.{{sfn|Brown|2003|p=74}}{{sfn|Thompson|2005|pp=87, 93}} Pagans remained in important positions at his court.{{sfn|Leithart|2010|p=302}} Constantine ruled for 31 years and despite personal animosity toward paganism, he never outlawed paganism.{{sfn|Brown|2003|p=74}}{{sfn|Drake|1995|pp=3, 7}} Making the adoption of Christianity beneficial was Constantine's primary approach to religion, and imperial favor was important to successful Christianization over the next century.{{sfn|Bayliss|2004|p=243}}{{sfn|Southern|2015|pp=455–457}} Yet, Constantine did not institute many christianizing changes, and those measures he did enact did little to Christianize civic culture.{{sfn|Lim|2012|pp=499-500}} According to historian Michelle Renee Salzman, there is no evidence to indicate that conversion of pagans through force was an accepted method of Christianization at any point in Late Antiquity. Evidence indicates all uses of imperial force concerning religion were aimed at heretics (who were already Christian) such as the [[Donatism|Donatists]] and the [[Manichaeism|Manichaeans]] and not at non-believers such as Jews or pagans.{{sfn|Stocking|2000|p=135 fn.68}}{{sfn|García-Arenal|Glazer-Eytan|2019|p=19}}{{sfn|Salzman|2006|pp=268–269}}{{sfn|Marcos|2013|pp=1–16}}{{refn|group=note|In his 1984 book, ''Christianizing the Roman Empire: (A.D. 100–400)'', and again in 1997, [[Ramsay MacMullen]] argues that widespread Christian anti–pagan violence, as well as persecution from a "bloodthirsty" and violent Constantine (and his successors), caused the Christianization of the Roman Empire in the fourth century.{{sfn|MacMullen|1984|pp=46–50}}{{sfn|Salzman|2006|p=265}} Salzman describes MacMullen's book as "controversial".{{sfn|Salzman|2006|p=265}} In a review of it, T. D. Barnes has written that MacMullen's book treats "non-Christian evidence as better and more reliable than Christian evidence", generalizes from pagan polemics as if they were unchallenged fact, misses important facts entirely, and shows an important selectivity in his choices of what ancient and modern works he discusses.{{sfn|Barnes|1985|p=496}}{{paragraph break}} [[David Bentley Hart]] also gives a detailed discussion of MacMullen's "careless misuse of textual evidence".{{sfn|Hart|2009|pp=148–152}}{{paragraph break}} Schwarz says MacMullen is an example of a modern minimalist.{{sfn|Schwartz|2005|pp=150–151}} Schwarz suggests that minimalism is beginning to show signs of decline because it tends to understate the significance of some human actions, and so makes assumptions that are hard to support.{{sfn|Schwartz|2005|p=152}} As a result, "MacMullen's account of Christianization as basically an aggregation of accidents and contingencies" is not broadly supported.{{sfn|Schwartz|2005|pp=150–152}}{{paragraph break}} In [[Gaul]], some of the most influential textual sources on pagan-Christian violence concerns [[Martin of Tours|Martin, Bishop of Tours]] ({{Circa|371}}–397), the Pannonian ex-soldier who is "solely credited in the historical record as the militant converter of Gaul".{{sfn|Salzman|2006|pp=278–279}}{{paragraph break}} These texts have been criticized for lacking historical veracity, even by ancient critics, but they are still useful for illuminating views of violence held in late fourth century Gaul.{{sfn|Salzman|2006|p=279}}{{paragraph break}} The portion of the sources devoted to attacks on pagans is limited, and they all revolve around Martin using his miraculous powers to overturn pagan shrines and idols, but not to ever threaten or harm people.{{sfn|Salzman|2006|p=280}}{{paragraph break}} Salzman concludes "None of Martin's interventions led to the deaths of any Gauls, pagan or Christian. Even if one doubts the exact veracity of these incidents, the assertion that Martin preferred non-violent conversion techniques says much about the norms for conversion in Gaul" at the time Martin's biography was written.{{sfn|Salzman|2006|p=282}}{{paragraph break}} Archaeologist David Riggs writes that evidence from [[North Africa]] reveals a tolerance of [[religious pluralism]] and a vitality of traditional paganism much more than it shows any form of religious violence or coercion: "persuasion, such as the propagation of Christian [[apologetics]], appears to have played a more critical role in the eventual "triumph of Christianity" than was previously assumed".{{sfn|Riggs|2006|pp=297, 308}}{{sfn|Salzman|Sághy|Testa|2016|p=2}}{{paragraph break}} According to Raymond Van Dam, "an approach which emphasizes conflict flounders as a means for explaining both the initial attractions of a new cult like Christianity, as well as, more importantly, its persistence".{{sfn|Van Dam|1985|p=2}} In the twenty first century, this model of early Christianization has become marginalized.{{sfn|Scourfield|2007|pp=2–4}}}} However, Constantine must have written the laws that threatened and menaced pagans who continued to practice sacrifice. The element of pagan culture most abhorrent to Christians was sacrifice, and altars used for it were routinely smashed. Christians were deeply offended by the blood of slaughtered victims as they were reminded of their own past sufferings associated with such altars.{{sfn|Bradbury|1995|pp=331, 346}} Richard Lim writes that "Putting an end to blood sacrifice ... thus became the singular goal of Christianization (Barnes 1984; Bradbury 1994, 1995)".{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=498}} There is no evidence that any of the horrific punishments included in the laws against sacrifice were ever enacted.{{sfn|Digeser|2000|pp=168–169}} There is no record of anyone being executed for violating religious laws before Tiberius II Constantine at the end of the sixth century (574–582).{{sfn|Thompson|2005|p=93}} Still, Bradbury notes that the complete disappearance of public sacrifice by the mid-fourth century "in many towns and cities must be attributed to the atmosphere created by imperial and episcopal hostility".{{sfn|Bradbury|1995|pp=345–356}} ==== Germanic conversions ==== {{further|Christianization#Germanic conversions{{!}}Germanic conversions}} Christianization spread through the Roman Empire and neighboring empires in the next few centuries, converting most of the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic barbarian peoples]] who would form the ethnic communities that would become the future nations of Europe.{{sfn|Clark|2011|pp=1-4}} The earliest references to the Christianization of these tribes are in the writings of [[Irenaeus]] (130–202 ), [[Origen]] (185–253), and [[Tertullian]] (''Adv. Jud. VII'') (155–220).{{sfn|Cusack|1998|p=56 fn.50}} [[Tacitus]] describes the nature of [[Germanic paganism|German religion]], and their understanding of the function of a king, as facilitating Christianization.{{sfn|Cusack|1998|p=35}} Missionaries aimed at converting Germanic nobility first.{{sfn|Cusack|1998|p=37}} Ties of fealty between German kings and their followers often produced mass conversions of entire tribes following their king.{{sfn|Cusack|1998|pp=78, 101}}{{sfn|Fletcher|1999|pp=236–238}} Afterwards, their societies began a gradual process of Christianization that took centuries, with some traces of earlier beliefs remaining.{{sfn|Lenski|1995|p=55}} In all cases, Christianization meant "the Germanic conquerors lost their native languages. ...[or] the [[syntax]], the conceptual framework underlying the [[lexicon]], and most of the literary forms, were thoroughly latinized".{{sfn|Roe|1980|p=101}} [[Saint Boniface]] led the effort in the mid-eighth century to organize churches in the region that would become modern [[Germany]].{{sfn|Lund|2022|p=113}} As ecclesiastical organization increased, so did the political unity of the Germanic Christians. By the year 962, when [[Pope John XII]] anoints [[Otto the Great|King Otto I]] as [[Holy Roman Emperor]], "Germany and [[Christendom]] had become one".{{sfn|Lund|2022|p=113}} This union lasted until dissolved by [[Napoleon]] in 1806.{{sfn|Lund|2022|p=113}} ===== Frankish Empire ===== {{Main|Germanic Christianity|Christianisation of the Germanic peoples}} {{See also|Christianization of the Franks}} The Franks first appear in the historical record in the 3rd century as a confederation of Germanic tribes living on the east bank of the lower Rhine River. [[Clovis I]] was the first [[List of Frankish kings|king of the Franks]] to unite all of the [[Franks|Frankish tribes]] under one ruler.{{sfn|Brown|2003|p=137}} The most likely date of his conversion to Catholicism is [[Christmas|Christmas Day]], 508, following the [[Battle of Tolbiac]].{{sfn|Danuta|1998|pp=29–57}}{{sfn|Padberg|1998|p=48}} He was baptized in [[Rheims]].{{sfn|Padberg|1998|pp=45–48, 53}} <!--Christianity had been present in [[Gaul]] for 300 years then.--> The Frankish Kingdom became Christian over the next two centuries.{{sfn|Lund|2022|p=113}}{{refn|group=note|[[Grave goods]], which of course are not a Christian practice, have been found until that time; see: {{harvp|Padberg|1998|p=59}}}} Saxons went back and forth between rebellion and submission to the Franks for decades.{{sfn|Riché|1993|p=87}}{{sfn|Lund|2022|p=113}} [[Charlemagne]] (r. 768–814) placed missionaries and courts across Saxony in hopes of pacifying the region, but Saxons rebelled again in 782 with disastrous losses for the Franks. In response, the Frankish King "enacted a variety of draconian measures" beginning with the [[Massacre of Verden|massacre at Verden]] in 782 when he ordered the decapitation of 4500 Saxon prisoners offering them baptism as an alternative to death.{{sfn|Riché|1993|pp=105, 161}} These events were followed by the severe legislation of the ''[[Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae]]'' in 785 which prescribes death to those that are disloyal to the king, harm Christian churches or its ministers, or practice pagan burial rites.{{sfn|Barbero|2004|p=46}} His harsh methods of Christianization raised objections from his friends [[Alcuin]] and [[Paulinus II of Aquileia|Paulinus of Aquileia]].{{sfn|Riché|1993|p=299}} Charlemagne abolished the death penalty for paganism in 797.{{sfn|Paul|2016|p=60}} ==== Christianization with coercion under Justinian I ==== {{Main|Justinian I}} [[File:Mosaic of Justinianus I - Basilica San Vitale (Ravenna).jpg|thumb|Mosaic of Justinian I in the Basilica San Vitale in Ravenna|alt=photo of a mosaic of Justinianus I from the Basilica San Vitale]] The religious policy of the Eastern emperor [[Justinian I]] (527 to 565) reflected his conviction that a unified Empire presupposed unity of faith.{{sfn|Irmscher|1988|p=165}}{{sfn|Anastos|1967|pp=13–41}} Justinian's efforts at requiring and enforcing this have led [[Anthony Kaldellis]] to write that Justinian is often seen as a tyrant and despot.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2012|pp=1–3}} Unlike Constantine, Justinian did purge the bureaucracy of those who disagreed with him.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2012|p=2}}{{sfn|Stern|1998|p=151}} He sought to centralize imperial government, became increasingly autocratic, and according to the historian [[Giovanni Domenico Mansi|Giovanni Mansi]], "nothing could be done", not even in the Church, that was contrary to the emperor's will and command.{{sfn|Mansi|1762|p=970B}} In Kaldellis' estimation, "Few emperors had started so many wars or tried to enforce cultural and religious uniformity with such zeal".{{sfn|Kaldellis|2012|p=3}}{{sfn|Irmscher|1988|p=166}}{{sfn|Lichtenberger|Raja|2018|pp=85–98}} [[File:Justinien 527-565.svg|thumb|The extent of the Byzantine Empire under Justinian's uncle Justin I is shown in the darker color. The lighter color shows the conquests of his successor, Justinian I also known as Justinian the Great|alt=this is a map showing the area that Justinian I conquered]] === Ireland === {{See also|Hiberno-Scottish mission|Christianization of Ireland|Celtic Christianity}} [[Pope Celestine I]] (422–430) sent [[Palladius (bishop of Ireland)|Palladius]] to be the first bishop to the Irish in 431, and in 432, [[St Patrick]] began his mission there.{{sfn|Harney|2017|p=103}} Scholars cite many questions (and scarce sources) concerning the next two hundred years.{{sfn|Haley|2002|p=96}} Relying largely on recent archaeological developments, Lorcan Harney has reported to the Royal Academy that the missionaries and traders who came to Ireland in the fifth to sixth centuries were not backed by any military force.{{sfn|Harney|2017|p=103}} Patrick and Palladius and other British and Gaulish missionaries aimed first at converting royal households. Patrick indicates in his ''Confessio'' that safety depended upon it.{{sfn|Harney|2017|p=117}} Communities often followed their king en masse.{{sfn|Harney|2017|p=117}} === Great Britain === {{See also|Anglo-Saxon Christianity|Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England}} {{further|Christianization#Germanic conversions{{!}}Germanic conversions}} The most likely date for Christianity getting its first foothold in Britain is sometime around 200.{{sfn|Thomas|1981|p=34}} Recent archaeology indicates that it had become an established minority faith by the fourth century.{{sfn|Thomas|1997|p=506–507}} Thereafter, Irish missionaries led by Saint [[Columba]], based in [[Iona]] (from 563), converted many [[Picts]].{{sfn|Adomen of Iona|1995|pp=30–33}} The court of Anglo-Saxon [[Northumbria]], and the [[Gregorian mission]], who landed in 596, did the same to the [[Kingdom of Kent]]. They had been sent by [[Pope Gregory I]] and were led by [[Augustine of Canterbury]] with a mission team from Italy. In both cases, as in other kingdoms of this period, conversion generally began with the royal family and the nobility adopting the new religion first.{{sfn|Wood|Armstrong|2007|pp=20–22}} === Italy === {{See also|Early centers of Christianity#Rome}} [[File:Heiligenkreuz.St. Benedict.jpg|alt=painted portrait of St.Benedict standing by a desk writing his Rule|thumb|Heiligenkreuz depiction of St. Benedict]] Classicist J.H.D. Scourfield writes that Christianization in Italy in Late Antiquity is "most aptly described in terms of negotiation, accommodation, adaptation, [and] transformation".{{sfn|Scourfield|2007|p=4}} Christianization in Italy allowed for religious competition and cooperation, included syncretism both to and from pagans and Christians, and allowed secularism.{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=498}} In 529, [[Benedict of Nursia]] established his first monastery at [[Monte Cassino]], Italy. He wrote the [[Rule of Saint Benedict]] based on "pray and work". This "Rule" provided the foundation of the majority of the thousands of monasteries that spread across the continent of what is now modern day Europe, thereby becoming a major factor in the Christianization of Europe.{{sfn|Butler|1919|pp=[https://archive.org/details/BenedictineMonachism/page/n13 4], 8-10}}{{sfn|Koenig|King|Carson|2012|pp=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofreligi0000koen/page/22 22–24]}}{{sfn|Monroe|1909|p=253}} === Greece === Christianization was slower in Greece than in most other parts of the Roman empire.{{sfn|Gregory|1986|p=235–236}} There are multiple theories of why, but there is no consensus. What is agreed upon is that, for a variety of reasons, Christianization did not take hold in Greece until the fourth and fifth centuries. Christians and pagans maintained a self imposed segregation throughout the period.{{sfn|Gregory|1986|p=233}} Historian and archaeologist [[Timothy E. Gregory]] has written in ''"The Survival of Paganism in Christian Greece: A Critical Essay"'' that J. M. Speiser successfully argued this was the situation throughout the country, and "rarely was there any significant contact, hostile or otherwise" between Christians and pagans in Greece.{{sfn|Gregory|1986|p=233}} Gregory adds his view that "it is admirably clear that organized paganism survived well into the sixth century throughout the empire and in parts of Greece (at least in the [[Mani Peninsula|Mani]]) until the ninth century or later".{{sfn|Gregory|1986|p=234}}{{sfn|Saradi|2011|pp=261–309}} Pagan ideas and forms persisted most in practices related to healing, death, and the family.{{sfn|Gregory|1986|p=241}} === Albania === {{Main|Church of Caucasian Albania}} [[File:Caucasian Albania in 5th and 6th centurires.svg|thumb|left|Caucasian Albania in 5th and 6th centurires|alt=map of Caucasian Albania in the fifth and sixth centuries]] Most scholars agree that Christianity was officially adopted in [[Caucasian Albania]] in AD 313 or AD 315 when [[Gregory the Illuminator]] baptized the Albanian king and ordained the first bishop Tovmas, the founder of the Albanian church. It is highly probable that Christianity covered the whole of antique Caucasian Albania by the late fourth century.{{sfn|Hakobyan|2021|pp=71-81}}{{sfn|Seibt|2002|p=abstract}} In his article ''"About the Dating of the Christianization of Caucasian Albania"'' historian of the Christian East, Aleksan H. Hakobyan, has written: <blockquote>The king of the country then was the founder of the [[Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania|Arsacid dynasty]] of Albania [[Vachagan I|Vachagan I the Brave]] (but not his grandson [[Urnayr]]), and the king of Armenia was [[Tiridates III of Armenia|Tiridat III the Great]], also Arsacid. As M. L. Chaumont established in 1969, the latter, with the help of Gregory the Illuminator, adopted the Christian faith at the state level in June 311, two months after the publication of the [[Edict of Serdica|Edict of Sardica]] "On Tolerance" by [[Galerius|Emperor Galerius]] (293–311). In 313, after the appearance of the [[Edict of Milan]], Tiridat attracted the younger allies of Armenia Iberia-Kartli, Albania-Aluank' and Lazika-Egerk' (Colchis) to the process of Christianization. In the first half of 315, Gregory the Illuminator baptized the Albanian king (who had arrived in Armenia) and ordained the first bishop Tovmas (the founder of the Albanian church, with the center in the capital Kapalak) for his country: he was from the city of [[Satala]] in Lesser Armenia. Probably, at the same stage, Christianization covered the whole of antique Albania, i.e. territory north of the [[Kura (river)|Kura River]], to the [[Caspian Sea]] and the [[Derbent|Derbend Pass]].{{sfn|Hakobyan|2021|p=71}}</blockquote> === Armenia, Georgia, Ethiopia and Eritrea === In 301, [[Christianization of Armenia|Armenia]] became the first kingdom in history to adopt Christianity as an official state religion.{{sfn|Cohan|2005|p=333}} The transformations taking place in these centuries of the Roman Empire had been slower to catch on in Caucasia. Indigenous writing did not begin until the fifth century, there was an absence of large cities, and many institutions such as monasticism did not exist in Caucasia until the seventh century.{{sfn|Aleksidze|2018|p=138}} Scholarly consensus places the Christianization of the Armenian and Georgian elites in the first half of the fourth century, although Armenian tradition says Christianization began in the first century through the Apostles [[Jude the Apostle|Thaddeus]] and [[Bartholomew the Apostle|Bartholomew]].{{sfn|Aleksidze|2018|p=135}} This is said to have eventually led to the conversion of the [[Arsacid dynasty of Armenia|Arsacid family]], (the royal house of Armenia), through [[St. Gregory the Illuminator]] in the early fourth century.{{sfn|Aleksidze|2018|p=135}} Christianization took many generations and was not a uniform process.{{sfn|Thomson|1988|p=35}} Byzantine historian Robert Thomson writes that it was not the officially established hierarchy of the church that spread Christianity in Armenia; "It was the unorganized activity of wandering holy men that brought about the Christianization of the populace at large".{{sfn|Thomson|1988|p=45}} The most significant stage in this process was the development of a script for the native tongue.{{sfn|Thomson|1988|p=45}} Scholars do not agree on the exact date of [[Christianization of Georgia]], but most assert the early 4th century when [[Mirian III]] of the [[Kingdom of Iberia]] (known locally as [[Kartli]]) adopted Christianity.{{sfn|Rapp|2007|p=138}} According to medieval [[Georgian Chronicles]], Christianization began with [[Andrew the Apostle]] and culminated in the evangelization of Iberia through the efforts of a captive woman known in Iberian tradition as [[Saint Nino]] in the fourth century.{{sfn|Aleksidze|2018|pp=135–136}} Fifth, 8th, and 12th century accounts of the conversion of Georgia reveal how pre-Christian practices were taken up and reinterpreted by Christian narrators.{{sfn|Horn|1998|p=262}} In 325, the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] (Modern [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]]) became the second country to declare Christianity as its official state religion.{{sfn|Brita|2020|p=252}} === A seismic moment on the Iberian Peninsula === [[File:SanPedroNave1.jpg|thumb|200px|[[San Pedro de la Nave]], one of the oldest churches in Spain|alt= photo of San Pedro de la Nave, one of the oldest churches in Spain]] [[Hispania]] had become part of the Roman Republic in the third century BC.{{sfn|Barton|2009|p=6, 7}} Christian communities can be found dating to the third century, and bishoprics had been created in [[León, Spain|León]], [[Mérida, Spain|Mérida]] and [[Zaragoza]] by that same period.{{sfn|Barton|2009|p=11}} In AD 300 an ecclesiastical council held in [[Elvira]] was attended by 20 bishops.{{sfn|Barton|2009|p=12}} With the end of persecution in 312, churches, baptistries, hospitals and episcopal palaces were erected in most major towns, and many landed aristocracy embraced the faith and converted sections of their villas into chapels.{{sfn|Barton|2009|p=12}} In 416, the Germanic [[Visigoths]] crossed into Hispania as Roman allies.{{sfn|Barton|2009|pp=13–14}} They converted to Arian Christianity shortly before 429.{{sfn|Ghosh|2016|p=116}} The Visigothic King [[Sisebut]] came to the throne in 612 when the Roman emperor [[Heraclius]] surrendered his Spanish holdings.{{sfn|Bouchier|1914|p=58}} Sisebut banished all Jews who would not submit to baptism. Roman historian Edmund Spenser Bouchier says 90,000 Hebrews were baptized while others fled to France or North Africa.{{sfn|Bouchier|1914|pp=58–59}} This contradicted the traditional position of the Catholic Church on the Jews, and scholars refer to this shift as a "seismic moment" in Christianization.{{sfn|García-Arenal|Glazer-Eytan|2019|pp=5–6, 15}} === Europe and Asia of the High and Late Middle Ages (800 to 1500) === In Central and Eastern Europe of the 8th and 9th centuries, Christianization was an integral part of the political centralization of the new nations being formed.{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=101}} In Eastern Europe, the combination of Christianization and political centralization created what Peter Brown describes as, "specific micro-Christendoms".{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=101}} [[Bulgaria]], [[Bohemia]] (which became [[Czechoslovakia]]), the [[Serbia|Serbs]] and the [[Croatia|Croats]], along with [[Hungary]], and [[Poland]], voluntarily joined the Western, Latin church, sometimes pressuring their people to follow. Full Christianization of the populace often took centuries to accomplish. Conversion began with local elites who wanted to convert because they gained prestige and power through matrimonial alliances and participation in imperial rituals. Christianization then spread from the center to the edges of society.{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=101}} Historian Ivo Štefan has written, "Although Christian authors often depicted the conversion of rulers as the triumph of the new faith, the reality was much more complex. Christianization of everyday life took centuries, with many non-Christian elements surviving in rural communities until the beginning of the modern era".{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=101}}{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=101}}{{refn|group=note|Historian Ivo Štefan asserts that, in general, adoption of Christianity in Bohemia, Poland and Hungary was not forced either by pressure from outside or by violence.{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=101}} }} ==== Language and literature ==== In the Christianization process of Bohemia, Moravia and Slovakia territories, the two Byzantine missionary brothers [[Saints Cyril and Methodius|Saints Constantine-Cyril and Methodius]] played the key roles beginning in 863.{{sfn|Ivanič|2016|pp=126, 129}} They spent approximately 40 months in Great Moravia continuously translating texts and teaching students.{{sfn|Ivanič|2016|p=127}} [[Saints Cyril and Methodius|Cyril]] developed the [[Glagolitic alphabet|first Slavic alphabet]] and translated the gospel into the [[Old Church Slavonic]] language.{{sfn|Schaff|n.d.|pp=161–162}} Old Church Slavonic became the first literary language of the Slavs and, eventually, the educational foundation for all Slavic nations.{{sfn|Ivanič|2016|p=127}} In 869 Methodius was consecrated as (arch)bishop of Pannonia and the Great Moravia regions.{{sfn|Ivanič|2016|p=127}} === Bulgaria === {{Main|Christianization of Bulgaria}} [[File:Geographic map of Balkan Peninsula.svg|thumb|Geographic map of Balkan Peninsula|alt=Geographic map of Balkan Peninsula]] [[File:Southeastern Europe Late Ninth Century.png|thumb|Southeastern Europe Late Ninth Century|alt=map showing Southeastern Europe Late Ninth Century]] Official Christianization began in 864/5 under [[Boris I of Bulgaria|Khan Boris I]] (852– 889).{{sfn|Ziemann|2021|pp=331–332}} Boris I determined that imposing Christianity was the answer to internal peace and external security.{{sfn|Crampton|2005|pp=9-10, 11}} The decision was partly military, partly domestic, and partly to diminish the power of the Proto-Bulgarian nobility. A number of nobles reacted violently; 52 were executed.{{sfn|Crampton|2005|pp=13–14}} After prolonged negotiations with both Rome and Constantinople, an [[Autocephaly|autocephalous]] Bulgarian Orthodox Church was formed that used the newly created [[Cyrillic script]] to make the Bulgarian language the language of the Church.{{sfn|Crampton|2005|pp=14–16}} After a series of victories in wars against the Byzantines led by [[Simeon I of Bulgaria|Symeon]] (893 to 927), the Byzantines recognized the [[Bulgarian Patriarchate]].{{sfn|Ziemann|2021|p=332}} === Serbia === {{Main|Christianization of Serbs}} [[File:Seal of Strojimir.gif|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Seal of prince [[Strojimir]] of [[Principality of Serbia (early medieval)|Serbia]], from the late 9th century – one of the oldest artifacts of the Christianization of the Serbs|alt=photo of the Seal of prince Strojimir of the Principality of Serbia from the late 9th century – one of the oldest artifacts of the Christianization of the Serbs]] [[File:Delegation of Croats and Serbs to Emperor Basil I, Skylitzes.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|[[Basil I]] with delegation of Serbs|alt=photo of painting, by Skylitzes, showing a delegation of Croats and Serbs to Emperor Basil I]] The full conversion of the Slavs dates to the time of [[Eastern Orthodox]] missionaries [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]] during the reign of the Byzantine emperor [[Basil I]] (r. 867–886).{{sfn|Radić|2010|p=232}} The first diocese of Serbia, the [[Diocese of Ras]], is mentioned in the ninth century.{{sfn|Radić|2010|p=232}} Serbs were baptized sometime before [[Basil I]], who was asked by the [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusians]] for help, sent imperial admiral [[Nikita Orifas]] to [[Mutimir of Serbia|Knez Mutimir]] to aid in the war against the Saracens in 869.{{sfn|Rastko|n.d.}} Serbia can certainly be seen as a Christian nation by 870.{{sfn|Vlasto|1970|p=208}} === Croatia === According to [[Constantine VII]], Christianization of Croats began in the 7th century.{{sfn|Popovski|2017|p=none available}} The conversion of Croatia is said to have been completed by the time of Duke [[Trpimir I of Croatia|Trpimir]]'s death in 864. In 879, under duke [[Branimir of Croatia|Branimir]], Croatia received papal recognition as a state from [[Pope John VIII]].{{sfn|Antoljak|1994|p=43}}{{refn|group=note|Hungarian historian László Veszprémy writes: "By the end of the 11th century, Hungarian expansion had secured Croatia, a country that was coveted by both the Venetian and Byzantine empires and had already adopted the Latin Christian faith. The Croatian crown was held by the Hungarian kings up to 1918, but Croatia retained its territorial integrity throughout. It is not unrelated that the borders of Latin Christendom in the Balkans have remained coincident with the borders of Croatia into present times".{{sfn|Veszprémy|2001|p=83}}}} === Bohemia/Czech lands === {{main|Christianization of Bohemia|Christianization of Moravia}} What was Bohemia forms much of the Czech Republic, comprising the central and western portions of the country.{{sfn|Friese|2017}} [[File:Czech Rep. - Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia IV (en).png|thumb|Czech Republic – Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia IV (en)|alt=map showing Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia]] Significant missionary activity only took place after Charlemagne defeated the [[Avar Khanate|Avar Khaganate]] several times at the end of the 8th century and beginning of the ninth centuries.{{sfn|Ivanič|2016|pp=124–125}} The first Christian church of the Western and Eastern Slavs (known to written sources) was built in 828 by [[Pribina]] (c. 800–861) ruler and Prince of the [[Principality of Nitra]].{{sfn|Goldberg|2006|pp=16, 83–84}} In 880, Pope John VIII issued the bull ''Industriae Tuae'', by which he set up the independent ecclesiastical province with Archbishop Methodius as its head.{{sfn|Ivanič|2016|p=128}} Relics withstood the fall of Great Moravia.{{sfn|Ivanič|2016|p=129}} === Poland === {{Main|Christianization of Poland}} {{See also|Pagan reaction in Poland}} [[File:Matejko Christianization of Poland.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Introduction of Christianity in Poland]]'', by [[Jan Matejko]], 1888–89, [[National Museum, Warsaw]]|alt=photo of a late nineteenth century painting by Jan Matejko depicting the introduction of Christianity to Poland through symbols such as a cross and a plow, baptism and reading]] According to historians Franciszek Longchamps de Bérier and Rafael Domingo: "A pre-Christian [[Poland]] never existed. Poland entered history suddenly when some western lands inhabited by the Slavs embraced Christianity".{{sfn|de Bérier|Domingo|2022|p=3}} The dynastic interests of the [[Piast dynasty|Piasts]] produced the establishment of both church and state in Great Poland ([[Greater Poland]], also known as ''"Wielkopolska"'' in Polish, is a historical region of west-central Poland. Its chief and largest city is Poznań.).{{sfn|Bukowska|2012|p=467}} The [[Christianization of Poland|"Baptism of Poland"]] ({{lang-pl|Chrzest Polski}}) in 966, refers to the baptism of [[Mieszko I of Poland|Mieszko I]], the first ruler.{{sfn|Bukowska|2012|p=467}} Mieszko's baptism was followed by the building of churches and the establishment of an ecclesiastical hierarchy. Mieszko saw baptism as a way of strengthening his hold on power, with the active support he could expect from the bishops, as well as a unifying force for the [[Polish people]].{{sfn|Bukowska|2012|p=467}} === Hungary === {{See also|Vata pagan uprising}} [[File:SztIstvan 5.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|right|Image of the King Saint [[Stephen I of Hungary]], from the medieval codex Chronicon Pictum from the 14th century|alt=Image of the King Saint [[Stephen I of Hungary]], from the medieval codex Chronicon Pictum from the 14th century]] Around 952, the tribal chief [[Gyula II]] of [[Transylvania]], visited [[Constantinople]] and was baptized, bringing home with him Hierotheus who was designated [[Metropolitanate of Tourkia|bishop of Turkia]] (Hungary).{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p=130}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=40}} The conversion of Gyula at Constantinople and the missionary work of Bishop Hierotheus are depicted as leading directly to the court of [[Stephen I of Hungary|St. Stephen]], the first Hungarian king, a Christian in a still mostly pagan country.{{sfn|Moravcsik|1947|p=141}}{{sfn|Jestice|1997|p=57}} Stephen suppressed rebellion, organized both the Hungarian State (with strong royal authority), and the church, by inviting missionaries, and suppressing paganism by making laws such as requiring people to attend church every Sunday.{{sfn|Sedlar|1995|pp=1119–1120}} Soon the Hungarian Kingdom had two archbishops and 8 bishops, and a defined state structure with province governors that answered to the King.{{sfn|Sedlar|1995|pp=1119–1120}} Saint Stephen was the first Hungarian monarch elevated to sainthood for his Christian characteristics and not because he suffered a martyr's death.{{sfn|Sisa|1995|pp=169–170}} Hungarian Christianity and the kingdom's ecclesiastical and temporal administrations consolidated towards the end of the 11th century.{{sfn|Veszprémy|2001|pp=86–87}} === Scandinavia (Sweden, Norway and Denmark) === {{Main|Christianization of Scandinavia}} [[File:34 of 'The History of Norway. (With maps.)' (11184806384).jpg|thumb|34 of 'The History of Norway. (With maps.)' (11184806384)|alt=maps of the three Scandinavian countries before 1000]] Christianization of Scandinavia is divided into two stages by Professor of medieval archaeology [[Alexandra Sanmark]].{{sfn|Sanmark|2004|pp=14, 15}} Stage 1 involves missionaries who arrived in pagan territory in the 800s, on their own, without secular support.{{sfn|Sanmark|2004|pp=15, 21}} Historian [[Florence Harmer]] writes "Between A.D. 960 and 1008 three Scandinavian kings were converted to Christianity".{{sfn|Harmer|1946|p=122}} The Danish King [[Harald Bluetooth|Harald Gormsen (Bluetooth)]] was baptized c. 960. The conversion of Norway was begun by [[Haakon the Good|Hákon Aðalsteinsfostri]] between 935 and 961, but the wide-scale conversion of this kingdom was undertaken by King [[Olaf Tryggvason]] in c. 995. In Sweden, King [[Olof Skötkonung|Olof Erikson Skötkonung]] accepted Christianity around 1000.{{sfn|Sanmark|2004|p=22}} According to Peter Brown, Scandinavians adopted Christianity of their own accord c.1000.{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=473}} [[Anders Winroth]] explains that Iceland became the model for the institutional conversion of the rest of Scandinavia after AD 1000.{{sfn|Murphy|2014|p=542}} Winroth demonstrates that Scandinavians were not passive recipients of the new religion, but converted to Christianity because it was in their political, economic, and cultural interests to do so.{{sfn|Winroth|2012|p=abstract}} Stage 2 began when a secular ruler took charge of Christianization in their territory, and ended when a defined and organized ecclesiastical network was established.{{sfn|Sanmark|2004|p=14}} By 1350, Scandinavia was an integral part of Western Christendom.{{sfn|Brink|2004|p=xvi}} === Romania === In the last two decades of the 9th century, missionaries [[Clement of Ohrid|Clement and Naum]], (who were disciples of the brothers Cyril and Methodius), had arrived in the region spreading the Cyrillic alphabet.{{sfn|Pop|2009|p=252}} By the 10th century when the Bulgarian Tsars extended their territory to include [[Transylvania]], they were able to impose the Bulgarian church model and its Slavic language without opposition.{{sfn|Pop|2009|p=251}} Nearly all Romanian words concerning Christian faith have Latin roots (from the early centuries of Roman occupation), while words regarding the organization of the church are Slavonic.{{sfn|Pop|2009|p=249}} Romanian historian [[Ioan-Aurel Pop]] writes "Christian fervor and the massive conversion to Christianity among the Slavs may have led to the canonic conversion of the last heathen, or ecclesiastically unorganized, Romanian islands".{{sfn|Pop|2009|p=252}} For Romanians, the church model was "overwhelming, omnipresent, putting pressure on the Romanians and often accompanied by a political element".{{sfn|Pop|2009|p=252}} This ecclesiastical and political tradition continued until the 19th century.{{sfn|Pop|2009|p=253}} === Northern crusades === [[File:Baltic Tribes c 1200.svg|thumb|Baltic Tribes c 1200|alt=map of Baltic tribes around the year 1200]] [[File:Bishop Absalon topples the god Svantevit at Arkona.PNG|thumb|right|[[Absalon|Danish Bishop Absalon]] destroys the idol of [[Slavic mythology|Slavic]] god [[Svantevit]] at [[Cape Arkona|Arkona]] in a painting by Laurits Tuxen|alt= photo of painting by Laurits Tuxen depicting the Bishop Absalon toppling the god Svantevit at Arkona]] From before the days of [[Charlemagne]] (747–814), the fierce pagan tribes east of the [[Baltic Sea]] lived on the physical frontiers of Christendom in what has today become [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]] and the [[Kaliningrad Oblast|Kaliningrad oblast (Prussia)]]. They survived largely by raiding – stealing crucial resources, killing, and enslaving captives – from the countries that surrounded them including Denmark, Prussia, Germany and Poland.{{sfn|Fonnesberg-Schmidt|2007|p=23}}{{sfn|Mazeika|2017|p=abstract}} When the [[Blessed Eugenius III|Pope Eugene III]] (1145–1153) called for a [[Second Crusade]] in response to the [[Siege of Edessa (1144)|fall of Edessa in 1144]], the Germanic, Danish and Polish nobles refused to go. {{sfn|Fonnesberg-Schmidt|2007|p=65}} They did not see crusading as a moral, faith based duty. They saw it as a tool for territorial expansion, alliance building, wealth, and empowerment. In fact, one result of these wars according to historian Aiden Lilienfeld was that, "The conquering forces of the Northern Crusades brought more territory under German control than nearly any other concerted expansion in the history of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]".{{sfn|Lilienfeld|2022}} Combining their personal priorities with a need to permanently stop the raiding, they requested permission to subdue the Baltic instead.{{sfn|Firlej|2021–2022|pp=120, 121, 133}}{{sfn|Fonnesberg-Schmidt|2007|p=23, 64-65}} In 1147, Eugenius' ''Divini dispensatione,'' gave the eastern nobles full crusade indulgences to do so.{{sfn|Fonnesberg-Schmidt|2007|p=65}}{{sfn|Christiansen|1997|p=71}}{{sfn|Fonnesberg-Schmidt|2009|p=119}} The Northern, (or Baltic), Crusades followed, taking place, off and on, with and without papal support, from 1147 to 1316.{{sfn|Christiansen|1997|p=287}}{{sfn|Hunyadi|Laszlovszky|2001|p=606}}{{sfn|Fonnesberg-Schmidt|2007|pp=65, 75–77}} Since, as law professor [[Eric Christiansen]] indicates, the primary motivation for these wars was the noble's desire for territorial expansion and wealth, taking the time for peaceful conversion did not fit in with these plans.{{sfn|Fonnesberg-Schmidt|2007|pp=23–24, 29}}{{sfn|Christiansen|1997|pp=10–15}}{{sfn|Dragnea|2020|pp=5–6}} Conversion by these princes was almost always a result of conquest.{{sfn|Fonnesberg-Schmidt|2007|pp=23, 24}} According to Fonnesberg-Schmidt, "While the theologians maintained that conversion should be voluntary, there was a widespread pragmatic acceptance of conversion obtained through political pressure or military coercion".{{sfn|Fonnesberg-Schmidt|2007|p=24}} There were often severe consequences for populations that chose to resist.{{sfn|Dollinger|1999|p=34}}{{sfn|Forstreuter|1938|p=9}}{{sfn|Christiansen|1997|pp=14–15}} === Lithuania === [[File:Grand Duchy of Lithuania Rus and Samogitia 1434.jpg|thumb|Grand Duchy of Lithuania Rus and Samogitia 1434|alt=map of Lithuania in 1434]] The last of the Baltic crusades was the conflict between the mostly German [[Teutonic Order]] and [[Lithuania]] in the far northeastern reaches of Europe. Lithuania is sometimes described as "the last pagan nation in medieval Europe".{{sfn|Wyrwińska|2022|pp=48–63}} The Teutonic Order was a mostly German crusading organization from the Christian Holy Land founded by members of the [[Knights Hospitaller]]. Medieval historian Aiden Lilienfeld says "In 1226, however, the [[Konrad I of Masovia|Duke of Mazovia]] ... granted the Order territory in eastern Prussia in exchange for help in subjugating pagan Baltic peoples".{{sfn|Lilienfeld|2022}} Over the course of the next 200 years, the Order expanded its territory to cover much of the eastern Baltic coast.{{sfn|Lilienfeld|2022}} [[File:Jadwiga by Bacciarelli.jpg|thumb|Jadwiga_by_Bacciarelli|alt=photo of painting by Bacciarelli of the young Polish King Jadwiga]] In 1384, [[Jadwiga of Poland|Jadwiga]], the ten year old daughter of [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis the Great, King of Hungary and Poland]] and his wife [[Elizabeth of Bosnia]], was crowned ''king'' of Poland. One year later, a marriage was arranged between her and the [[Władysław II Jagiełło|Grand Duke Jogaila]] of Lithuania. Duke Jogaila was baptized, married, and crowned king in 1386, thus beginning the 400 year shared history of Poland and Lithuania.{{sfn|Wyrwińska|2022|pp=3–4}} This would seem to obviate the need for religious crusade, yet activity against local populations, particularly the [[Samogitia|Samogitian]] peoples of the eastern Baltic, continued in a frequently brutal manner.{{sfn|Lilienfeld|2022}} The Teutonic Order eventually fell to Poland-Lithuania in 1525. Lilienfeld says "After this, the Order's territory was divided between Poland-Lithuania and the Hohenzollern dynasty of Brandenburg, putting an end to the monastic state and the formal Northern Crusade. All of the Order's most powerful cities–Danzig (Gdansk), Elbing (Elblag), Marienburg (Malbork), and Braunsberg (Braniewo)–now fall within Poland in the 21st century, except for Koenigsburg (Kaliningrad) in Russia."{{sfn|Lilienfeld|2022}} === Kievan Rus' === {{Main|Christianization of Kievan Rus'}} [[File:Lebedev baptism.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|''The Baptism of Kievans'', a painting by [[Klavdiy Lebedev]]|alt=photo of a painting by Klavdiy Lebedev of mass baptism of the Kievens in a river]] Around 978, [[Vladimir the Great|Vladimir]] (978–1015), the son of [[Sviatoslav I|Sviatoslav]], seized power in [[Kiev]].{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=103}} Slavic historian Ivo Štefan writes that, Vladimir examined monotheism for himself, and "Around that same time, Vladimir conquered Cherson in the Crimea, where, according to the [[Tale of Bygone Years]], he was baptized".{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=111}} After returning to Kiev, the same text describes Vladimir as unleashing "a systematic destruction of pagan idols and the construction of Christian churches in their place".{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=111}} [[File:Kiev vasnetcov.jpg|thumb|upright|''The [[Baptism of Kiev]]ans'', a fresco by [[Viktor Vasnetsov]]|alt=another photo of a painting by Viktor Vasnetsov of mass baptism of Kiev's inside a chapel]] Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary had become part of western Latin Christianity, while the Rus' adopted Christianity from Byzantium, leading them down a different path.{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=101, 112}} A specific form of Rus' Christianity formed quickly.{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=111}} The Rus' dukes maintained exclusive control of the church which was financially dependent upon them.{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=111}} The prince appointed the clergy to positions in government service; satisfied their material needs; determined who would fill the higher ecclesiastical positions; and directed the synods of bishops in the Kievan metropolitanate.{{sfn|Poppe|1991|p=15}} This new Christian religious structure was imposed upon the socio-political and economic fabric of the land by the authority of the state's rulers.{{sfn|Poppe|1991|p=12}} According to Andrzej Poppe, Slavic historian, it is fully justifiable to call the Church of Rus' a state church. The Church strengthened the authority of the Prince, and helped to justifiy the expansion of Kievan empire into new territories through missionary activity.{{sfn|Poppe|1991|p=15}} Christian clergy translated religious texts into local vernacular language which introduced literacy to all members of the princely dynasty, including women and the general populace.{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=113}} Monasteries of the twelfth century became key spiritual, intellectual, art, and craft centers.{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=112}} Under Vladimir's son Yaroslav I the Wise (1016–1018, 1019–1054), a building and cultural boom took place.{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=112}} The Church of Rus' gradually developed into an independent political force in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.{{sfn|Poppe|1991|p=14}} === Iberian Reconquista === {{Main|Reconquista}} [[File:Batalla de las Navas de Tolosa, por Francisco van Halen.jpg|thumb|250px|Depiction of the [[Battle of Navas de Tolosa]] by 19th-century painter [[Francisco de Paula Van Halen]]|alt=photo of a painting by 19th-century painter Francisco de Paula Van Halen depicting the Battle of Navas de Tolosa]] Between 711 and 718, the [[Iberian peninsula]] had been conquered by [[Muslims]] in the [[Muslim conquest of Spain|Umayyad conquest]].{{sfn|Barton|2009|p=xvii}} The centuries long military struggle to reclaim the peninsula from Muslim rule, called the [[Reconquista]], took place until the Christian Kingdoms, that would later become Spain and Portugal, reconquered the [[Moors|Moorish]] [[Al-Andalus|Al-Ándalus]] in 1492.{{sfn|Marin-Guzmán|1992|p=287}} (The [[Battle of Covadonga]] in 722 is seen as the beginning of Reconquista and the [[the Conquest of Granada|annexation of Grenada]] in 1492 is its end).<ref>Boyd, Carolyn P. "The Second Battle of Covadonga: The Politics of Commemoration in Modern Spain." History and Memory, vol. 14, no. 1–2, 2002, p. 37, JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2979/his.2002.14.1-2.37. Accessed 26 Aug. 2023.</ref><ref>Cook Jr, Weston F., and Andrés Bernaldez. "The Cannon Conquest of Nasrid Spain and the End of the Reconquista'." Crusaders, Condottieri, and Cannon: Medieval Warfare in Societies Around the Mediterranean 13 (2003): 253.</ref> [[Isabella I of Castile|Isabel]] and [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]] married in October 1469 thereby uniting Spain with themselves as its first royalty. In 1478, they established the [[Spanish Inquisition]], telling the Pope it was needed to find heretics - specifically Jews pretending to be Christian so they could spy for Moslems who wanted their territory back. In actuality, it served state interests and consolidated power in the monarchy.{{sfn|Rawlings|2006|pp=1–2}} The Spanish inquisition was originally authorized by the Pope, yet the initial inquisitors proved so severe that the Pope almost immediately opposed it and attempted to shut it down without success.{{sfn|Mathew|2018|pp=52–53}} Ferdinand is said to have pressured the Pope, and in October 1483, a papal bull conceded control of the inquisition to the Spanish crown. According to Spanish historian José Casanova, the Spanish inquisition became the first truly national, unified and centralized state institution.{{sfn|Casanova|1994|p=75}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page