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Do not fill this in! == History == {{Main|History of tuberculosis}} [[File:Mummy at British Museum.jpg|thumb|[[Egyptian mummy]] in the [[British Museum]] – tubercular decay has been found in the spine.]] <!-- Ancient history --> Tuberculosis has existed since [[Ancient history|antiquity]].<ref name=Lancet11/> The oldest unambiguously detected ''M. tuberculosis'' gives evidence of the disease in the remains of bison in Wyoming dated to around 17,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rothschild BM, Martin LD, Lev G, Bercovier H, Bar-Gal GK, Greenblatt C, Donoghue H, Spigelman M, Brittain D | display-authors = 6 | title = Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex DNA from an extinct bison dated 17,000 years before the present | journal = Clinical Infectious Diseases | volume = 33 | issue = 3 | pages = 305–11 | date = August 2001 | pmid = 11438894 | doi = 10.1086/321886 | doi-access = free }}</ref> However, whether tuberculosis originated in bovines, then transferred to humans, or whether both bovine and human tuberculosis diverged from a common ancestor, remains unclear.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pearce-Duvet JM | title = The origin of human pathogens: evaluating the role of agriculture and domestic animals in the evolution of human disease | journal = Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society | volume = 81 | issue = 3 | pages = 369–82 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16672105 | doi = 10.1017/S1464793106007020 | s2cid = 6577678 }}</ref> A comparison of the [[gene]]s of [[M. tuberculosis complex]] (MTBC) in humans to MTBC in animals suggests humans did not acquire MTBC from animals during animal domestication, as researchers previously believed. Both strains of the tuberculosis bacteria share a common ancestor, which could have infected humans even before the [[Neolithic Revolution]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Comas I, Gagneux S | title = The past and future of tuberculosis research | journal = PLOS Pathogens | volume = 5 | issue = 10 | page = e1000600 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 19855821 | pmc = 2745564 | doi = 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000600 | veditors = Manchester M | doi-access = free }}</ref> Skeletal remains show some prehistoric humans (4000 [[Common Era|BC]]) had TB, and researchers have found tubercular decay in the spines of [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] [[mummy|mummies]] dating from 3000 to 2400 BC.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zink AR, Sola C, Reischl U, Grabner W, Rastogi N, Wolf H, Nerlich AG | display-authors = 6 | title = Characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex DNAs from Egyptian mummies by spoligotyping | journal = Journal of Clinical Microbiology | volume = 41 | issue = 1 | pages = 359–67 | date = January 2003 | pmid = 12517873 | pmc = 149558 | doi = 10.1128/JCM.41.1.359-367.2003 }}</ref> Genetic studies suggest the presence of TB in [[the Americas]] from about AD 100.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Konomi N, Lebwohl E, Mowbray K, Tattersall I, Zhang D | title = Detection of mycobacterial DNA in Andean mummies | journal = Journal of Clinical Microbiology | volume = 40 | issue = 12 | pages = 4738–40 | date = December 2002 | pmid = 12454182 | pmc = 154635 | doi = 10.1128/JCM.40.12.4738-4740.2002 }}</ref> Before the [[Industrial Revolution]], folklore often associated tuberculosis with [[vampire]]s. When one member of a family died from the disease, the other infected members would lose their health slowly. People believed this was caused by the original person with TB draining the life from the other family members.<ref name=sledzik>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sledzik PS, Bellantoni N | title = Brief communication: bioarcheological and biocultural evidence for the New England vampire folk belief | journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume = 94 | issue = 2 | pages = 269–74 | date = June 1994 | pmid = 8085617 | doi = 10.1002/ajpa.1330940210 | url = http://www.yorku.ca/kdenning/+++2150%202007-8/sledzik%20vampire.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170218082115/http://www.yorku.ca/kdenning/+++2150%202007-8/sledzik%20vampire.pdf | url-status=live | archive-date = 18 February 2017 }}</ref> ===Identification=== Although [[Dr Richard Morton|Richard Morton]] established the pulmonary form associated with [[tubercle (anatomy)|tubercles]] as a pathology in 1689,<ref name="WhoNamedIt-Calmette">{{WhoNamedIt|doctor|2413|Léon Charles Albert Calmette}}</ref><ref name="MedHist1970-Trail">{{cite journal | vauthors = Trail RR | title = Richard Morton (1637-1698) | journal = Medical History | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 166–74 | date = April 1970 | pmid = 4914685 | pmc = 1034037 | doi = 10.1017/S0025727300015350 }}</ref> due to the variety of its symptoms, TB was not identified as a single disease until the 1820s. [[Benjamin Marten]] conjectured in 1720 that consumptions were caused by microbes which were spread by people living close to each other.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Marten B |title=A New Theory of Consumptions—More Especially a Phthisis or Consumption of the Lungs |date=1720 |publisher=T. Knaplock |location=London, England |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ucm.5320214800&view=1up&seq=7 |access-date=8 December 2020 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326205015/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ucm.5320214800&view=1up&seq=7 |url-status=live }} P. 51: "The ''Original'' and ''Essential Cause'' ... may possibly be some certain Species of ''Animalcula'' or wonderfully minute living Creatures, ... " P. 79: "It may be therefore very likely, that by an habitual lying in the same Bed with a Consumptive Patient, constantly Eating and Drinking with him, or by very frequently conversing so nearly, as to draw in part of the Breath he emits from his Lungs, a Consumption may be caught by a sound Person; ... "</ref> In 1819, [[René Laennec]] claimed that tubercles were the cause of pulmonary tuberculosis.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Laennec RT |title=De l'auscultation médiate ... |date=1819 |publisher=J.-A. Brosson et J.-S Chaudé |location=Paris, France |volume=1 |page=20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcZEAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA20 |language=fr |access-date=6 December 2020 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212549/https://books.google.com/books?id=LcZEAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA20 |url-status=live }} From p. 20: ''"L'existence des tubercules dans le poumon est la cause et constitue le charactère anatomique propre de la phthisie pulmonaire (a). (a) ... l'effet dont cette maladie tire son nom, c'est-à-dire, la consumption."'' (The existence of tubercles in the lung is the cause and constitutes the unique anatomical characteristic of pulmonary tuberculosis (a). (a) ... the effect from which this malady [pulmonary tuberculosis] takes its name, that is, consumption.)</ref> [[Johann Lukas Schönlein|J. L. Schönlein]] first published the name "tuberculosis" (German: ''Tuberkulose'') in 1832.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Schönlein JL |title=Allgemeine und specielle Pathologie und Therapie |trans-title=General and Special Pathology and Therapy |date=1832 |publisher=C. Etlinger |location=Würzburg, (Germany) |volume=3 |page=103 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zAtbAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA103 |language=de |access-date=6 December 2020 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602233224/https://books.google.com/books?id=zAtbAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA103 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>The word "tuberculosis" first appeared in Schönlein's clinical notes in 1829. See: {{cite journal | vauthors = Jay SJ, Kırbıyık U, Woods JR, Steele GA, Hoyt GR, Schwengber RB, Gupta P | title = Modern theory of tuberculosis: culturomic analysis of its historical origin in Europe and North America | journal = The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease | volume = 22 | issue = 11 | pages = 1249–1257 | date = November 2018 | pmid = 30355403 | doi = 10.5588/ijtld.18.0239 | s2cid = 53027676 }} See especially Appendix, p. iii.</ref> Between 1838 and 1845, John Croghan, the owner of [[Mammoth Cave]] in Kentucky from 1839 onwards, brought a number of people with tuberculosis into the cave in the hope of curing the disease with the constant temperature and purity of the cave air; each died within a year.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TRAVEL/DESTINATIONS/02/26/mammoth.cave.ap/index.html | title = Kentucky: Mammoth Cave long on history. | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060813140746/http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TRAVEL/DESTINATIONS/02/26/mammoth.cave.ap/index.html | archive-date= 13 August 2006| work = [[CNN]] | date = 27 February 2004 | access-date = 8 October 2006 }}</ref> Hermann Brehmer opened the first TB [[sanatorium]] in 1859 in Görbersdorf (now [[Sokołowsko]]) in [[Silesia]].<ref name =sanatoria>{{cite journal | vauthors = McCarthy OR | title = The key to the sanatoria | journal = Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine | volume = 94 | issue = 8 | pages = 413–17 | date = August 2001 | pmid = 11461990 | pmc = 1281640 | url = http://www.jrsm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11461990 | doi = 10.1177/014107680109400813 | access-date = 28 September 2011 | archive-date = 3 August 2012 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120803180504/http://www.jrsm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11461990 | url-status = live }}</ref> In 1865, [[Jean Antoine Villemin]] demonstrated that tuberculosis could be transmitted, via inoculation, from humans to animals and among animals.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Villemin JA |title=Cause et nature de la tuberculose |journal=Bulletin de l'Académie Impériale de Médecine |date=1865 |volume=31 |pages=211–216 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044103060562&view=1up&seq=215 |trans-title=Cause and nature of tuberculosis |language=fr |access-date=6 December 2020 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209200251/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044103060562&view=1up&seq=215 |url-status=live }} * See also: {{cite book |vauthors=Villemin JA |title=Etudes sur la tuberculose: preuves rationnelles et expérimentales de sa spécificité et de son inoculabilité |trans-title=Studies of tuberculosis: rational and experimental evidence of its specificity and inoculability |date=1868 |publisher=J.-B. Baillière et fils |location=Paris, France |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JFg7AAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7 |language=fr |access-date=6 December 2020 |archive-date=7 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240207093804/https://books.google.com/books?id=JFg7AAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> (Villemin's findings were confirmed in 1867 and 1868 by [[John Burdon-Sanderson]].<ref>Burdon-Sanderson, John Scott. (1870) "Introductory Report on the Intimate Pathology of Contagion." Appendix to: Twelfth Report to the Lords of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council [for the year 1869], Parliamentary Papers (1870), vol. 38, 229–256.</ref>) [[File:RobertKoch.jpg|upright|thumb|Robert Koch discovered the tuberculosis bacillus.]] [[Robert Koch]] identified and described the bacillus causing tuberculosis, ''M. tuberculosis'', on 24 March 1882.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Koch R | title = Robert Koch: Zentrale Texte | chapter = Die Ätiologie der Tuberkulose (1882) |series=Klassische Texte der Wissenschaft |date=24 March 1882|trans-title=The Etiology of Tuberculosis| chapter-url = http://edoc.rki.de/docviews/abstract.php?id=610|volume=19|pages=221–30|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-56454-7_4|isbn=978-3-662-56454-7|access-date=15 June 2021|archive-date=6 November 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181106191545/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015020075001;view=1up;seq=235|url-status=live|publisher=Springer Spektrum|location=Berlin, Heidelberg}}</ref><ref name="discoverydate">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/tb/worldtbday/history.htm|title=History: World TB Day|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC)|url-status=live|access-date=23 March 2019|date=12 December 2016|archive-date=7 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181207112253/https://www.cdc.gov/tb/worldtbday/history.htm}}</ref> In 1905, he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for this discovery.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1905/summary/|access-date=7 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061210184150/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1905/|archive-date=10 December 2006|url-status=live|website=www.nobelprize.org|language=en-US}}</ref> ===Development of treatments=== In Europe, rates of tuberculosis began to rise in the early 1600s to a peak level in the 1800s, when it caused nearly 25% of all deaths.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Bloom BR |title= Tuberculosis: pathogenesis, protection, and control|year= 1994|publisher= ASM Press|location= Washington, DC|isbn= 978-1-55581-072-6|url-access= registration|url= https://archive.org/details/tuberculosispath0000unse}}</ref> In the 18th and 19th century, [[History of tuberculosis#Epidemic tuberculosis|tuberculosis had become epidemic in Europe]], showing a seasonal pattern.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web| vauthors = Frith J |title=History of Tuberculosis. Part 1 – Phthisis, consumption and the White Plague|url=https://jmvh.org/article/history-of-tuberculosis-part-1-phthisis-consumption-and-the-white-plague/|url-status=live|access-date=26 February 2021|website=Journal of Military and Veterans' Health|archive-date=8 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210408050305/https://jmvh.org/article/history-of-tuberculosis-part-1-phthisis-consumption-and-the-white-plague/}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zürcher K, Zwahlen M, Ballif M, Rieder HL, Egger M, Fenner L | title = Influenza Pandemics and Tuberculosis Mortality in 1889 and 1918: Analysis of Historical Data from Switzerland | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 11 | issue = 10 | pages = e0162575 | date = 5 October 2016 | pmid = 27706149 | pmc = 5051959 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0162575 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2016PLoSO..1162575Z }}</ref> Tuberculosis caused widespread public concern in the 19th and early 20th centuries as the disease became common among the urban poor. In 1815, one in four deaths in England was due to "consumption". By 1918, TB still caused one in six deaths in France.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}} After TB was determined to be contagious, in the 1880s, it was put on a [[List of notifiable diseases|notifiable-disease]] list in Britain; campaigns started to stop people from spitting in public places, and the infected poor were "encouraged" to enter [[sanatorium|sanatoria]] that resembled prisons (the sanatoria for the middle and upper classes offered excellent care and constant medical attention).<ref name =sanatoria/> Whatever the benefits of the "fresh air" and labor in the sanatoria, even under the best conditions, 50% of those who entered died within five years ({{circa}} 1916).<ref name =sanatoria/> Robert Koch did not believe the cattle and human tuberculosis diseases were similar, which delayed the recognition of infected milk as a source of infection. During the first half of the 1900s, the risk of transmission from this source was dramatically reduced after the application of the [[pasteurization]] process. Koch announced a [[glycerine]] extract of the tubercle bacilli as a "remedy" for tuberculosis in 1890, calling it "tuberculin". Although it was not effective, it was later successfully adapted as a screening test for the presence of pre-symptomatic tuberculosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Waddington K | title = To stamp out 'so terrible a malady': bovine tuberculosis and tuberculin testing in Britain, 1890–1939 | journal = Medical History | volume = 48 | issue = 1 | pages = 29–48 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14968644 | pmc = 546294 | doi = 10.1017/S0025727300007043 }}</ref> [[World Tuberculosis Day]] is marked on 24 March each year, the anniversary of Koch's original scientific announcement. When the [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]] formed in Britain in 1913, it initially focused on tuberculosis research.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Hannaway C |title= Biomedicine in the twentieth century: practices, policies, and politics|year= 2008|publisher= IOS Press|location= Amsterdam|isbn=978-1-58603-832-8|page= 233|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=o5HBxyg5APIC&pg=PA233|url-status=live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150907185226/https://books.google.com/books?id=o5HBxyg5APIC&pg=PA233|archive-date= 7 September 2015}}</ref> [[Albert Calmette]] and [[Camille Guérin]] achieved the first genuine success in immunization against tuberculosis in 1906, using attenuated bovine-strain tuberculosis. It was called [[BCG vaccine|bacille Calmette–Guérin]] (BCG). The BCG vaccine was first used on humans in 1921 in France,<ref name=Bonah>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bonah C | title = The 'experimental stable' of the BCG vaccine: safety, efficacy, proof, and standards, 1921–1933 | journal = Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 696–721 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16337557 | doi = 10.1016/j.shpsc.2005.09.003 }}</ref> but achieved widespread acceptance in the US, Great Britain, and Germany only after World War II.<ref name=Comstock>{{cite journal | vauthors = Comstock GW | title = The International Tuberculosis Campaign: a pioneering venture in mass vaccination and research | journal = Clinical Infectious Diseases | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | pages = 528–40 | date = September 1994 | pmid = 7811874 | doi = 10.1093/clinids/19.3.528 }}</ref> <!-- Effective management --> By the 1950s mortality in Europe had decreased about 90%.<ref name=Per2010>{{cite book| vauthors = Persson S |title= Smallpox, Syphilis and Salvation: Medical Breakthroughs That Changed the World|year= 2010|publisher= ReadHowYouWant.com|isbn= 978-1-4587-6712-7|page= 141|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-W7ch1d6JOoC&pg=PA141|url-status=live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150906192102/https://books.google.com/books?id=-W7ch1d6JOoC&pg=PA141|archive-date= 6 September 2015}}</ref> Improvements in sanitation, vaccination, and other public-health measures began significantly reducing rates of tuberculosis even before the arrival of [[streptomycin]] and other antibiotics, although the disease remained a significant threat.<ref name=Per2010/> In 1946, the development of the antibiotic streptomycin made effective treatment and cure of TB a reality. Prior to the introduction of this medication, the only treatment was surgical intervention, including the "[[pneumothorax]] technique", which involved collapsing an infected lung to "rest" it and to allow tuberculous lesions to heal.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Shields T |title= General thoracic surgery|year= 2009|publisher= Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location= Philadelphia|isbn= 978-0-7817-7982-1|page= 792|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bVEEHmpU-1wC&pg=PA792|edition= 7th|url-status=live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150906212146/https://books.google.com/books?id=bVEEHmpU-1wC&pg=PA792|archive-date= 6 September 2015}}</ref> ===Current reemergence=== Because of the emergence of [[multidrug-resistant tuberculosis]] (MDR-TB), surgery has been re-introduced for certain cases of TB infections. It involves the removal of infected chest cavities ("bullae") in the lungs to reduce the number of bacteria and to increase exposure of the remaining bacteria to antibiotics in the bloodstream.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lalloo UG, Naidoo R, Ambaram A | s2cid = 24221563 | title = Recent advances in the medical and surgical treatment of multi-drug resistant tuberculosis | journal = Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine | volume = 12 | issue = 3 | pages = 179–85 | date = May 2006 | pmid = 16582672 | doi = 10.1097/01.mcp.0000219266.27439.52 }}</ref> Hopes of eliminating TB ended with the rise of [[Antibiotic resistant|drug-resistant]] strains in the 1980s. The subsequent resurgence of tuberculosis resulted in the declaration of a global health emergency by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1993.<ref>{{cite web |title= Frequently asked questions about TB and HIV |url=https://www.who.int/tb/hiv/faq/en/index.html |publisher=World Health Organization (WHO) |access-date= 15 April 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110808115404/http://www.who.int/tb/hiv/faq/en/ |archive-date= 8 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page