Greek alphabet Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! == Letters == === Sound values === {{Main|Greek orthography|Pronunciation of Ancient Greek in teaching}}{{Further|Manners of articulation}} In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-[[Phonemic orthography|phonemic]]. For a number of letters, sound values differ considerably between Ancient and Modern Greek, because their pronunciation has followed a set of systematic phonological shifts that affected the language in its post-classical stages.<ref name="horrocks_231">{{harvnb|Horrocks|2006|pp=231–250}}</ref> {|cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10" style="text-align:center;" |style="vertical-align:top;"| {|class="wikitable" |- !rowspan="2"|Letter !! rowspan="2"|Name !colspan="2"|Ancient pronunciation !colspan="2"|Modern pronunciation |- ! {{smaller|IPA<ref name="woodard_2008_15">{{harvnb|Woodard|2008|pp=15–17}}</ref>}} ! {{smaller|Approximate western European equivalent}} ! {{smaller|IPA<ref name="holton_1998_31">{{harvnb|Holton|Mackridge|Philippaki-Warburton|1998|p=31}}</ref>}} ! {{smaller|Approximate western European equivalent}}<ref name="Adams1987pp67">{{harvnb|Adams|1987|pages=6–7}}</ref> |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Α α}} ||[[alpha]], {{wikt-lang|el|άλφα}} || Short: {{IPAblink|a}}<br/>Long: {{IPAblink|aː}} ||Short: first a as in English ''<u>a</u>wait''<ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/><br/>Long: a as in English ''f<u>a</u>ther''<ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/>|| {{IPAblink|ɐ|a}} ||a as in English ''f<u>a</u>ther'', but short |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Β β}} ||[[beta]], {{wikt-lang|el|βήτα}} || {{IPAblink|b}}<ref name="Mastronarde2013p10">{{harvnb|Mastronarde|2013|page=10}}</ref><ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/> || b as in English ''<u>b</u>etter''<ref name="Groton2013p10">{{harvnb|Groton|2013|page=3}}</ref><ref name="Mastronarde2013p10"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/> || {{IPAblink|v}} || v as in English ''<u>v</u>ote'' |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Γ γ}} ||[[gamma]], {{wikt-lang|el|γάμμα}} || {{IPAblink|ɡ}}<br/>{{IPAblink|ŋ}} when used before {{lang|el|γ}}, {{lang|el|κ}}, {{lang|el|ξ}}, {{lang|el|χ}}, and possibly {{lang|el|μ}}|| g as in English ''<u>g</u>et''<ref name="Mastronarde2013p10"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/><br/>ng as in English ''sing'' when used before {{lang|el|γ}}, {{lang|el|κ}}, {{lang|el|ξ}}, {{lang|el|χ}}, and possibly {{lang|el|μ}}<ref name="Mastronarde2013p10"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/><ref group="ex">For example, ἀ'''γ'''κών.</ref> ||{{IPAblink|ɣ}} before /a/, /o/, /u/; {{IPAblink|ʝ}} before /e/, /i/; {{IPAblink|ŋ}}<ref group="ex">For example, ε'''γ'''γραφή.</ref> ~ {{IPAblink|ɲ}}<ref group="ex">For example, ε'''γ'''γεγραμμένος.</ref> | g as in Spanish ''la<u>g</u>o;'' y as in English ''<u>y</u>ellow;'' ng as in English ''lo<u>ng</u>'' |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Δ δ}} ||[[Delta (letter)|delta]], {{wikt-lang|el|δέλτα}} || {{IPAblink|d}} || d as in English ''<u>d</u>elete''<ref name="Groton2013p10"/><ref name="Mastronarde2013p10"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/> ||{{IPAblink|ð}} || th as in English ''<u>th</u>en'' |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Ε ε}} ||[[epsilon]], {{wikt-lang|el|έψιλον}} || {{IPAblink|e}} || colspan="3"|ea as in Scottish English gr<u>ea</u>''t''<ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Matthews |first=Ben |date=May 2006 |title=Acquisition of Scottish English Phonology: An Overview |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277877087 |access-date=25 October 2023 |website=ResearchGate}}</ref> similar to ay as in English overl<u>ay</u>, but without pronouncing y. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Overlay Definition & Meaning |url=https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/overlay |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=Britannica Dictionary |language=en-US}}</ref><!--See [[Talk:Greek_alphabet#Sound_values_of_epsilon_and_eta]]--> |- <!--Voiced alveolar affricate--> |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Ζ ζ}} ||[[zeta]], {{wikt-lang|el|ζήτα}} || {{IPA|[zd]}}, <small>or possibly {{IPAblink|dz}}</small> || sd as in English ''wi<u>sd</u>om'',<br/><small>or possibly dz as in English ''a<u>dz</u>e''</small><ref name="hinge">{{harvnb|Hinge|2001|pp=212–234}}</ref><ref name="KellerRussell2012pp56">{{harvnb|Keller|Russell|2012|pages=5–6}}</ref>{{refn|group="note"|name="zetashift"|By around 350 BC, zeta in the Attic dialect had shifted to become a single fricative, {{IPAblink|z}}, as in modern Greek.<ref name="Mastronarde2013p11">{{harvnb|Mastronarde|2013|page=11}}</ref>}} ||{{IPAblink|z}} || z as in English ''<u>z</u>oo'' |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Η η}} ||[[eta]], {{wikt-lang|el|ήτα}} || {{IPAblink|ɛː}} ||e as in English n<u>e</u>t, but long <ref>{{Cite web |title=Net Definition & Meaning |url=https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/net |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=Britannica Dictionary |language=en-US}}</ref> ê as in French ''t<u>ê</u>te''<ref name="Mastronarde2013p11" /><!--See [[Talk:Greek_alphabet#Sound_values_of_epsilon_and_eta]]--> | {{IPAblink|i}} || i as in English ''mach<u>i</u>ne'', but short |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Θ θ}} ||[[theta]], {{wikt-lang|el|θήτα}} || {{IPAblink|tʰ}} || t as in English ''<u>t</u>op''<ref name="Mastronarde2013p11"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/>{{refn|group="note"|name="thetaphichi"|The letters [[theta]] {{angbr|{{lang|el|θ}}}}, [[phi]] {{angbr|{{lang|el|φ}}}}, and [[Chi (letter)|chi]] {{angbr|{{lang|el|χ}}}} are normally taught to English speakers with their modern Greek pronunciations of {{IPAblink|θ}}, {{IPAblink|f}}, and {{IPAblink|x}} ~ {{IPAblink|ç}} respectively, because these sounds are easier for English speakers to distinguish from the sounds made by the letters [[tau]] ({{IPAblink|t}}), [[pi (letter)|pi]] ({{IPAblink|p}}), and [[kappa]] ({{IPAblink|k}}) respectively.<ref name="Mastronarde2013pp1113">{{harvnb|Mastronarde|2013|pages=11–13}}</ref><ref name="KellerRussell2012pp56"/> These are not the sounds they made in classical Attic Greek.<ref name="Mastronarde2013pp1113"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012pp56"/> In classical Attic Greek, these three letters were always [[aspirated consonants]], pronounced exactly like tau, pi, and kappa respectively, only with a blast of air following the actual consonant sound.<ref name="Mastronarde2013pp1113"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012pp56"/>}} ||{{IPAblink|θ}} ||th as in English ''<u>th</u>in'' |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Ι ι}} ||[[iota]], {{wikt-lang|el|ιώτα}} || Short: {{IPAblink|i}}<br/>Long: {{IPAblink|iː}} ||Short: i as in French ''v<u>i</u>te'',<ref name="Mastronarde2013p11"/><br/>Long: i as in English ''mach<u>i</u>ne''<ref name="Adams1987pp67"/>||{{IPAblink|i}}, {{IPAblink|ç}},<ref group="ex">For example, πάπ'''ι'''α.</ref> {{IPAblink|ʝ}},<ref group="ex">For example, β'''ι'''α.</ref> {{IPAblink|ɲ}}<ref group="ex">For example, μ'''ι'''α.</ref> || i as in English ''mach<u>i</u>ne'', but short |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Κ κ}} ||[[kappa]], {{wikt-lang|el|κάππα}} || {{IPAblink|k}} || k as in English,<ref name="Mastronarde2013p11"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/> but completely [[unaspirated]]<ref name="Mastronarde2013p11"/> || {{IPAblink|k}} ~ {{IPAblink|c}} || k as in English ''ma<u>k</u>e'' |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Λ λ}} ||[[lambda|lambda, lamda, labda]], {{wikt-lang|el|λάμβδα| λάμβδα, λάμδα, λάβδα}}{{refn|group="note"|name="lambdaorlabda"|The letter {{lang|el|Λ}} is almost universally known today as ''lambda'' ({{wikt-lang|el|λάμβδα}}) except in Modern Greek and in [[Lambda#Character_encodings|Unicode]], where it is ''lamda'' ({{wikt-lang|el|λάμδα}}), and the most common name for it during the [[Classical Greece|Greek Classical Period]] (510–323 BC) appears to have been ''labda'' ({{wikt-lang|el|λάβδα}}), without the {{lang|el|μ}}.<ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/>}} || {{IPAblink|l}} || colspan="3"|l as in English ''<u>l</u>antern''<ref name="Groton2013p10"/><ref name="Mastronarde2013p12"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/> |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Μ μ}} ||[[Mu (letter)|mu]], {{wikt-lang|el|μυ}} || {{IPAblink|m}} || colspan="3"|m as in English ''<u>m</u>usic''<ref name="Groton2013p10"/><ref name="Mastronarde2013p12"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/> |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Ν ν}} ||[[Nu (letter)|nu]], {{wikt-lang|el|νυ}} || {{IPAblink|n}} || colspan="3"|n as in English ''<u>n</u>et''<ref name="Mastronarde2013p12"/> |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Ξ ξ}} ||[[Xi (letter)|xi]], {{wikt-lang|el|ξι}} || {{IPA|[ks]}} || colspan="3"|x as in English ''fo<u>x</u>''<ref name="Mastronarde2013p12"/> |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Ο ο}} ||[[omicron]], {{wikt-lang|el|όμικρον}} || {{IPAblink|o}} || colspan="3"|o as in German ''<u>o</u>hne'' |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Π π}} ||[[Pi (letter)|pi]], {{wikt-lang|el|πι}} || {{IPAblink|p}} || colspan="3"|p as in English ''to<u>p</u>''<ref name="Mastronarde2013p12"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/> |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Ρ ρ}} ||[[rho]], {{wikt-lang|el|ρο}} || {{IPAblink|r}} || colspan="3"|trilled r as in Italian or Spanish<ref name="Mastronarde2013p12"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/><ref name="Groton2013p10"/> |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Σ σ/ς, Ϲ ϲ}}{{refn|group="note"|name="nicholas_finalsigma"|The letter [[sigma]] {{angbr|{{lang|el|Σ}}}} has two different lowercase forms in its standard variant, {{angbr|{{lang|el|σ}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|el|ς}}}}, with {{angbr|{{lang|el|ς}}}} being used in word-final position and {{angbr|{{lang|el|σ}}}} elsewhere.<ref name="KellerRussell2012pp56"/><ref name="Mastronarde2013p12">{{harvnb|Mastronarde|2013|page=12}}</ref><ref name="Nick2004">{{cite web |first=Nick |last=Nicholas |year=2004 |title=Sigma: final versus non-final |url=http://www.opoudjis.net/unicode/letters.html |access-date=2016-09-29}}</ref> In some 19th-century typesetting, {{angbr|{{lang|el|ς}}}} was also used word-medially at the end of a [[Compound (linguistics)|compound]] morpheme, e.g. "δυςκατανοήτων", marking the morpheme boundary between "δυς-κατανοήτων" ("difficult to understand"); modern standard practice is to spell "δυσκατανοήτων" with a non-final sigma.<ref name="Nick2004"/> The letter sigma also has an alternative variant, the [[lunate sigma]] (uppercase {{lang|el|Ϲ}}, lowercase {{lang|el|ϲ}}), which is used in all positions.<ref name="KellerRussell2012pp56"/><ref name="Mastronarde2013p12"/><ref name="Thompson1912pp108144">{{harvnb|Thompson|1912|pages=108, 144}}</ref> This form of the letter developed during the [[Hellenistic period]] (323–31 BC) as a simplification of the older {{lang|el|Σ σ}}/ς variant.<ref name="Thompson1912pp108144"/> Thus, the word {{lang|grc-Latn|stasis}} can either be written {{lang|el|στάσις}} or {{lang|el|ϲτάϲιϲ}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Keller|Russell|2012|page=6}}</ref> In modern, edited Greek texts, the lunate sigma typically appears primarily in older typesetting.<ref name="Mastronarde2013p12"/>}} |[[sigma]], {{wikt-lang|el|σίγμα}} || {{IPAblink|s}}<br/>{{IPAblink|z}} before {{lang|el|β}}, {{lang|el|γ}}, or {{lang|el|μ}}|| colspan="3"|s as in English ''<u>s</u>oft''<ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/><br/> s as in English ''mu<u>s</u>e'' when used before {{lang|el|β}}, {{lang|el|γ}}, or {{lang|el|μ}}<ref name="Mastronarde2013p12"/> |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Τ τ}} ||[[tau]], {{wikt-lang|el|ταυ}} || {{IPAblink|t}} || colspan="3"|t as in English ''coa<u>t</u>''<ref name="Mastronarde2013p12"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/> |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Υ υ}} ||[[upsilon]], {{wikt-lang|el|ύψιλον}} || Short: {{IPAblink|y}}<br/>Long: {{IPAblink|yː}} ||Short: u as in French ''l<u>u</u>ne''<br/>Long: u as in French ''r<u>u</u>se''<ref name="Mastronarde2013p12"/> ||{{IPAblink|i}} || i as in English ''mach<u>i</u>ne'', but short |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Φ φ}} ||[[phi]], {{wikt-lang|el|φι}} || {{IPAblink|pʰ}} || p as in English ''<u>p</u>ot''<ref name="Mastronarde2013p13">{{harvnb|Mastronarde|2013|page=13}}</ref>{{refn|group="note"|name="thetaphichi"}}|| {{IPAblink|f}} || f as in English ''<u>f</u>ive'' |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Χ χ}} ||[[Chi (letter)|chi]], {{wikt-lang|el|χι}} || {{IPAblink|kʰ}} ||c as in English ''<u>c</u>at''<ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/>{{refn|group="note"|name="thetaphichi"}}|| {{IPAblink|x}} ~ {{IPAblink|ç}} || ch as in Scottish ''lo<u>ch</u>'' ~ h as in English ''<u>h</u>ue'' |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Ψ ψ}} ||[[Psi (letter)|psi]], {{wikt-lang|el|ψι}} || {{IPA|[ps]}} || colspan="3"|ps as in English ''la<u>ps</u>e''<ref name="Mastronarde2013p13"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/> |- |style="font-size:120%;"|{{lang|el|Ω ω}} ||[[omega]], {{wikt-lang|el|ωμέγα}} || {{IPAblink|ɔː}} || aw as in English ''s<u>aw</u>''<ref name="KellerRussell2012p5"/>{{refn|group="note"|name="omegapronunciation"|The letter [[omega]] {{angbr|{{lang|el|ω}}}} is normally taught to English speakers as {{IPA|[oʊ]}}, the long o as in English ''g<u>o</u>'', in order to more clearly distinguish it from omicron {{angbr|{{lang|el|ο}}}}.<ref name="Mastronarde2013p13"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012pp56"/> This is not the sound it actually made in classical Attic Greek.<ref name="Mastronarde2013p13"/><ref name="KellerRussell2012pp56"/>}} || {{IPAblink|o̞|o}} || o as in German ''<u>o</u>hne'', similar to British English ''c<u>a</u>ll'' |} |} ;Examples {{reflist|group="ex"}} ;Notes {{reflist|group="note"}} Among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants ({{IPA|/b, d, g/}}) and aspirated plosives ({{IPA|/pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/}}) in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding [[Fricative consonant|fricative sounds]] in Modern Greek. The correspondences are as follows: {| class="wikitable" |- !rowspan="2"| !colspan="3"|Former [[Plosive#Voice|voiced plosives]] !colspan="3"|Former [[Plosive#Aspiration|aspirates]] |- style="font-size: smaller;" !Letter !Ancient !Modern !Letter !Ancient !Modern |- |Labial |{{lang|el|Β β}} |{{IPAslink|b}} |{{IPAslink|v}} |{{lang|el|Φ φ}} |{{IPAslink|pʰ}} |{{IPAslink|f}} |- |Dental |{{lang|el|Δ δ}} |{{IPAslink|d}} |{{IPAslink|ð}} |{{lang|el|Θ θ}} |{{IPAslink|tʰ}} |{{IPAslink|θ}} |- |Dorsal |{{lang|el|Γ γ}} |{{IPAslink|ɡ}} |{{IPAblink|ɣ}} ~ {{IPAblink|ʝ}} |{{lang|el|Χ χ}} |{{IPAslink|kʰ}} |{{IPAblink|x}} ~ {{IPAblink|ç}} |} Among the vowel symbols, Modern Greek sound values reflect the radical simplification of the vowel system of post-classical Greek, merging multiple formerly distinct vowel phonemes into a much smaller number. This leads to several groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the historical spellings in most of these cases. As a consequence, the spellings of words in Modern Greek are often not predictable from the pronunciation alone, while the reverse mapping, from spelling to pronunciation, is usually regular and predictable. The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers: {| class="wikitable" |- !Letter !! Ancient !! Modern |- |{{lang|el|Η η}} ||{{IPA link|ɛː}} ||rowspan="6"|> {{IPA link|i}} |- |{{lang|el|Ι ι}} ||{{IPA link|i}}({{IPA|ː}}) |- |{{lang|el|ΕΙ ει}} ||{{IPA|eː}} |- |{{lang|el|Υ υ}} ||{{IPA link|u}}({{IPA|ː}}) > {{IPA link|y}} |- |{{lang|el|ΟΙ οι}} ||{{IPA|oi}} > {{IPA link|y}} |- |{{lang|el|ΥΙ υι}} ||{{IPA|yː}} > {{IPA link|y}} |- |{{lang|el|Ω ω}} |{{IPA link|ɔː}} | rowspan="2" |> {{IPA link|o̞|o}} |- |{{lang|el|Ο ο}} |{{IPA link|o}} |- |{{lang|el|Ε ε}} |{{IPA link|e}} | rowspan="2" |> {{IPA link|e̞|e}} |- |{{lang|el|ΑΙ αι}} |{{IPA|ai}} |} Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern symbol–sound mappings in reading Greek of all historical stages. In other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of [[Pronunciation of Ancient Greek in teaching|conventional approximations]] of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek. === Digraphs and letter combinations === Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components. Among them are several [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] of vowel letters that formerly represented [[diphthong]]s but are now monophthongized. In addition to the four mentioned above ({{angbr|{{lang|el|ει}}, οι, υι}}, pronounced {{IPA|/i/}} and {{angbr|{{lang|el|αι}}}}, pronounced {{IPA|/e/}}), there is also {{angbr|{{lang|el|ηι, ωι}}}}, and {{angbr|{{lang|el|ου}}}}, pronounced {{IPA|/u/}}. The Ancient Greek diphthongs {{angbr|{{lang|el|αυ}}}}, {{angbr|{{lang|el|ευ}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|el|ηυ}}}} are pronounced {{IPA|[av]}}, {{IPA|[ev]}} and {{IPA|[iv]}} in Modern Greek. In some environments, they are devoiced to {{IPA|[af]}}, {{IPA|[ef]}} and {{IPA|[if]}} respectively.<ref>Additionally, the more ancient combination {{angbr|{{lang|el|ωυ}}}} or {{angbr|{{lang|el|ωϋ}}}} can occur in ancient especially in [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]] texts or in personal names.</ref> The Modern Greek consonant combinations {{angbr|{{lang|el|μπ}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|el|ντ}}}} stand for {{IPA|[b]}} and {{IPA|[d]}} (or {{IPA|[mb]}} and {{IPA|[nd]}}) respectively; {{angbr|{{lang|el|τζ}}}} stands for {{IPA|[d͡z]}} and {{angbr|{{lang|el|τσ}}}} stands for {{IPA|[t͡s]}}. In addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter {{angbr|{{lang|el|γ}}}}, before another [[velar consonant]], stands for the [[velar nasal]] {{IPA|[ŋ]}}; thus {{angbr|{{lang|el|γγ}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|el|γκ}}}} are pronounced like English {{angbr|ng}} like in the word finger (not like in the word thing). In analogy to {{angbr|{{lang|el|μπ}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|el|ντ}}}}, {{angbr|{{lang|el|γκ}}}} is also used to stand for {{IPA|[g]}}. There are also the combinations {{angbr|{{lang|el|γχ}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|el|γξ}}}}. {| class="wikitable" |- !Combination !Pronunciation !Devoiced pronunciation |- |{{angbr|{{lang|el|ου}}}} |{{IPAblink|u}} |– |- |{{angbr|{{lang|el|αυ}}}} |{{IPA|[av]}} |{{IPA|[af]}} |- |{{angbr|{{lang|el|ευ}}}} |{{IPA|[ev]}} |{{IPA|[ef]}} |- |{{angbr|{{lang|el|ηυ}}}} |{{IPA|[iv]}} |{{IPA|[if]}} |- |{{angbr|{{lang|el|μπ}}}} |{{IPA|[b]}} or {{IPA|[mb]}} |– |- |{{angbr|{{lang|el|ντ}}}} |{{IPA|[d]}} or {{IPA|[nd]}} |– |- |{{angbr|{{lang|el|γκ}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|el|γγ}}}} |{{IPA|[ɡ]}} or [ŋɡ] |– |- |{{angbr|{{lang|el|τζ}}}} |{{IPAblink|d͡z}} |– |- |{{angbr|{{lang|el|τσ}}}} |{{IPAblink|t͡s}} |– |- |{{angbr|{{lang|el|γ}}}} in {{angbr|{{lang|el|γχ}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|el|γξ}}}} |{{IPAblink|ŋ}} |– |} === Diacritics === {{Main|Greek diacritics}} {{Multiple image | image1 = Greek diacritic dipthong.svg | image2 = Greek diacritic non-diphthong.svg | total_width = 270 | footer = The acute accent in ''aulós'' {{IPA-el|avˈlos|}} ('flute') distinguishes the word from its [[homograph]] ''áulos'' {{IPA-el|ˈailos|}} ('immaterial'). The smooth breathing marks the absence of an initial /h/. }} In the [[polytonic orthography]] traditionally used for ancient Greek and [[katharevousa]], the stressed vowel of each word carries one of three accent marks: either the [[acute accent]] ({{Big|{{lang|grc|ά}}}}), the [[grave accent]] ({{Big|{{lang|grc|ὰ}}}}), or the [[circumflex accent]] ({{Big|{{lang|grc|α̃}}}} or {{big|{{lang|grc|α̑}}}}). These signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological [[pitch accent]] in Ancient Greek. By the time their use became conventional and obligatory in Greek writing, in late antiquity, pitch accent was evolving into a single [[Stress (linguistics)|stress accent]], and thus the three signs have not corresponded to a phonological distinction in actual speech ever since. In addition to the accent marks, every word-initial vowel must carry either of two so-called "breathing marks": the [[Spiritus asper|rough breathing]] ({{Big|{{lang|grc|ἁ}}}}), marking an {{IPA|/h/}} sound at the beginning of a word, or the [[Spiritus lenis|smooth breathing]] ({{Big|{{lang|grc|ἀ}}}}), marking its absence. The letter rho (ρ), although not a vowel, also carries rough breathing in a word-initial position. If a rho was geminated within a word, the first {{lang|el|ρ}} always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing (ῤῥ) leading to the transliteration rrh. The vowel letters {{angbr|{{lang|el|α, η, ω}}}} carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the so-called [[iota subscript]], which has the shape of a small vertical stroke or a miniature {{angbr|{{lang|el|ι}}}} below the letter. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, {{angbr|{{lang|el|ᾱι, ηι, ωι}}}} (i.e. {{IPA|/aːi, ɛːi, ɔːi/}}), which became monophthongized during antiquity. [[File:Greek diacritic non-diphthong capitals.svg|thumb|175x175px|Use of diaeresis in the word ''áulos'' indicating a [[vowel hiatus]]. The acute accent is absent in the upper case.]] Another diacritic used in Greek is the [[Double dot (diacritic)|diaeresis]] ({{big|{{lang|grc|¨}}}}), indicating a [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]]. This system of diacritics was first developed by the scholar [[Aristophanes of Byzantium]] ({{circa}} 257 – {{circa}} 185/180 BC), who worked at the [[Musaeum]] in Alexandria during the third century BC.{{sfn|Dickey|2007|pages=92–93}} Aristophanes of Byzantium also was the first to divide poems into lines, rather than writing them like prose, and also introduced a series of signs for [[textual criticism]].{{sfn|Dickey|2007|page=93}} In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as "monotonic", was adopted for official use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only a single accent mark, the acute (also known in this context as ''tonos'', i.e. simply "accent"), marking the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words, and occasionally the diaeresis to distinguish diphthongal from digraph readings in pairs of vowel letters, making this monotonic system very similar to the accent mark system used in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. The polytonic system is still conventionally used for writing Ancient Greek, while in some book printing and generally in the usage of conservative writers it can still also be found in use for Modern Greek. Although it is not a diacritic, the [[comma]] has a similar function as a [[silent letter]] in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing {{wikt-lang|el|ό,τι}} (''ó,ti'', "whatever") from {{wikt-lang|el|ότι}} (''óti'', "that").<ref name=nicky>Nicolas, Nick. "[http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/unicode/punctuation.html Greek Unicode Issues: Punctuation] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120806003722/http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/unicode/punctuation.html |date=2012-08-06 }}". 2005. Accessed 7 Oct 2014.</ref> === Romanization === {{Main|Romanization of Greek}} There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script.{{sfn|Verbrugghe|1999|pages=499–511}} The form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity.{{sfn|Verbrugghe|1999|pages=499–502}} In this system, {{angbr|{{lang|el|κ}}}} is replaced with {{angbr|c}}, the diphthongs {{angbr|{{lang|el|αι}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|el|οι}}}} are rendered as {{angbr|ae}} and {{angbr|oe}} (or {{angbr|æ,œ}}) respectively; and {{angbr|{{lang|el|ει}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|el|ου}}}} are simplified to {{angbr|i}} and {{angbr|u}} respectively.{{sfn|Verbrugghe|1999|pages=499–502, 510–511}} Smooth breathing marks are usually ignored and rough breathing marks are usually rendered as the letter {{angbr|h}}.{{sfn|Verbrugghe|1999|pages=499–502, 509}} In modern scholarly transliteration of Ancient Greek, {{angbr|{{lang|el|κ}}}} will usually be rendered as {{angbr|k}}, and the vowel combinations {{angbr|{{lang|el|αι}}, οι, ει, ου}} as {{angbr|ai, oi, ei, ou}} respectively.{{sfn|Verbrugghe|1999|pages=499–511}} The letters {{angbr|{{lang|el|θ}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|el|φ}}}} are generally rendered as {{angbr|th}} and {{angbr|ph}}; {{angbr|{{lang|el|χ}}}} as either {{angbr|ch}} or {{angbr|kh}}; and word-initial {{angbr|{{lang|el|ρ}}}} as {{angbr|rh}}.{{sfn|Verbrugghe|1999|pages=510–511}} Transcription conventions for Modern Greek{{sfn|Verbrugghe|1999|pages=505–507, 510–511}} differ widely, depending on their purpose, on how close they stay to the conventional letter correspondences of Ancient Greek-based transcription systems, and to what degree they attempt either an exact letter-by-letter [[transliteration]] or rather a phonetically based transcription.{{sfn|Verbrugghe|1999|pages=505–507, 510–511}} Standardized formal transcription systems have been defined by the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (as [[ISO 843]]),{{sfn|Verbrugghe|1999|pages=505–507, 510–511}}<ref name="ISO843">{{cite book|title=ISO 843:1997 (Conversion of Greek characters into Latin characters)|url=https://www.iso.org/standard/5215.html|url-access=subscription|author=ISO|author-link=International Organization for Standardization|year=2010}}</ref> by the [[United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Greek|url=http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom1_el.htm|author=UNGEGN Working Group on Romanization Systems|access-date=2012-07-15|year=2003}}</ref> by the [[ALA-LC romanization|Library of Congress]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Greek (ALA-LC Romanization Tables)|website=[[Library of Congress]]|url=https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/greek.pdf|year=2010}}</ref> and others. {|class="wikitable" |- !scope="col" | Letter !scope="col" | Traditional Latin transliteration{{sfn|Verbrugghe|1999|pages=510–511}} |- | {{lang|el|Α α}} | style='background: #ffffe6;' | A a |- | {{lang|el|Β β}} | style='background: #ffffe6;' | B b |- | {{lang|el|Γ γ}} | G g |- | {{lang|el|Δ δ}} | D d |- | {{lang|el|Ε ε}} | style='background: #ffffe6;' | E e |- | {{lang|el|Ζ ζ}} | style='background: #ffffe6;' | Z z |- | {{lang|el|Η η}} | style='background: #ffe6e6;' | Ē ē |- | {{lang|el|Θ θ}} | Th th |- | {{lang|el|Ι ι}} | style='background: #ffffe6;' | I i |- | {{lang|el|Κ κ}} | style='background: #ffffe6;' | C c, K k |- | {{lang|el|Λ λ}} | L l |- | {{lang|el|Μ μ}} | style='background: #ffffe6;' | M m |- | {{lang|el|Ν ν}} | style='background: #ffffe6;' | N n |- | {{lang|el|Ξ ξ}} | X x |- | {{lang|el|Ο ο}} | style='background: #ffffe6;' | O o |- | {{lang|el|Π π}} | P p |- | {{lang|el|Ρ ρ}} | style='background: #ffe6e6;' | R r, Rh rh |- | {{lang|el|Σ σ}}/ς | S s |- | {{lang|el|Τ τ}} | style='background: #ffffe6;' | T t |- | {{lang|el|Υ υ}} | style='background: #ffffe6;' | Y y, U u |- | {{lang|el|Φ φ}} | Ph ph |- | {{lang|el|Χ χ}} | style='background: #ffe6e6;' | Ch ch, Kh kh |- | {{lang|el|Ψ ψ}} | Ps ps |- | {{lang|el|Ω ω}} | Ō ō |} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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